Glossary

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Glossary Entries
Word(s)	Definition	Image	Caption	Link	Source
1862 Homestead Act	Important to U.S. westward migration, the Homestead Act provided adult heads of families with 160 acres of surveyed government land for a minimal fee, and 5 years tenancy on that land.
A.D.	a dating system meaning "in the year of our lord" (anno domini); equivalent to C.E. or Common/Current era; usually placed before the date, as in AD 1200 (see Chapter 2)
Abecedarian	A poem in which the first letter of each line follows the alphabet down the page. There are no restrictions on meter or rhyme.
Abraham Lincoln	Lincoln served as the 16th U.S. President. Lincoln presided over the Union during the Civil War, advocated for the end of slavery, and was assassinated by a confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth.
Abraham Rencher	Rencher was appointed as Governor of New Mexico Territory in 1857 by President Buchanan. Rencher was a social progressive who passed legislation for mandatory education for all children, and paid teachers per student.
absolute dating	estimate of an actual calendar date; also called chronometric dating (see Chapter 2)
Abstract	An abstract is a brief summary of a research article that is used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose.
Abstract	Idea words such as "dream," "love," or "curiosity" that one cannot touch physicaly and experience directly through the five senses.
Abu Hureyra	Neolithic tell site in Syria with pre-Neolithic and Neolithic components
Academia	The environment or community concerned with the pursuit of research, education, and scholarship.
Academic writing	Refers to a particular style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their areas of expertise.
Accommodation	When existing schemas change on the basis of new information.
accommodation	A term developed by psychologist Jean Piaget to describe what occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas
accommodation	when we restructure or modify what we already know so that new information can fit in better
acequias	An irrigation system used in Spain and its colonies for agriculture, composed of communal waterways to direct snowmelt and rivers over long distances. New Mexico's acequias date back to the pre-contact period.
Achieved Status	Status gained from accomplishments
achieved status	prestige that is gained through one's accomplishments; contrast with hereditary status/office
achievement tests	used to measure what a child has already learned
Acoma Pueblo	Located on top of a mesa, its height protected inhabitants from enemies below and gave the pueblo the nickname "Sky City."
active coping	seeking information, working to solve problems; tends to produce more positive outcomes than passive coping
active euthanasia	a type of voluntary euthanasia that is active, such as administering a lethal dose of medication to someone who wishes to die
active life expectancy	the number of years a person can expect to live without disability
activity theory	suggests that people are barred from meaningful experiences as they age and that physical and social activities are important
Actor-observer difference	To make more personal attributions for the behavior of others than we do for ourselves and to make more situational attributions for our own behavior than for the behavior of others.
Adams-Onís Treaty	Also known as the Transcontinental Treaty, in 1819 the United States and Spain completed a treaty that transferred Florida to the United States and settled their border dispute.
Adaptation	How an organism copes with their environment
adelantados	Literally "go-ahead men" in Spanish. These were nobles who explored and conquered the New World in return for funding for further operations and new titles of nobility.
Adelina “Nina” Otero-Warren	Born near Los Lunas, New Mexico, Otero was an early New Mexican suffragette and educator. Educated in the East, Ms. Otero returned to New Mexico and was active in politics, education and womans voting rights.
adolescent egocentrism	a characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages 10-13) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others (according to David Elkind)
adolescent growth spurt	rapid increase in the individual’s height and weight during puberty resulting from simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens. Males experience their growth spurt about two years later, on average, than females
adoption study	A behavior genetic research method that involves the comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents
adrenarche	an increase in the production of androgens by the adrenal cortex that usually occurs during the eighth or ninth year of life and typically peaks at around 10 to 14 years of age and is eventually involved in the development of pubic hair, body odor, skin oiliness, and acne
adverse childhood experiences	abuse, neglect, and violent experiences that contribute to childhood trauma
Advisory Committee on Uranium	Advisory Committee on Uranium was known officially as the S-1 Uranium Committee. It was a subcommittee of the National Defense Research Committee that had succeeded the Briggs Advisory Committee in Uranium. The committee later evolved into the Manhattan Project.
ageism	discrimination based on age
Aggression	Behavior that is intended to harm another individual who does not wish to be harmed.
agonal breathing	gasping, labored breaths caused by an abnormal pattern of brainstem reflex
agressive-rejected	children who are ostracized because they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational
agriculture	the reliance on domesticated plants for food
Agustín de Iturbide	Mexican army general and politician Agustín de Iturbide took control of Mexico City on September 27, 1821. His act that established the first and only Mexican Empire effectively secured the new republic's independence from Spain.
Ainsworth’s strange situation	a sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the type of attachment between a child and (typically) their mother
Alamogordo Bombing Range	Alamogordo Bombing Range was the former name of White Sands Missile Range (WSMR), located near Alamogordo, NM. The Trinity Site where the first atomic bomb was tested is part of WSMR.
Albert B. Fall	Albert B. Fall served as Senator of New Mexico, associate judge of the New Mexico Supreme Court, member of the Territorial Council, Attorney General, captain of an infantry company during the Spanish-American War, and delegate for New Mexico's constitutional convention. In 1908, Fall(...)
Albert Einstein	German-born theoretical physicist who developed the general theory of relativity. He decided to stay in the U.S. after Adolf Hitler rose to power in 1933. He endorsed a letter to President Roosevelt about nuclear weapons which led to the creation of the Manhattan Project.
Albert J. Beveridge	American Historian and U.S. Senator from Indiana. Beveridge was a supporter of Theodore Roosevelt's "Progressive" national agenda.
Albert P. Morrow	Cavalry Major, who led the 9th U.S. Cavalry regiment, was made up of enlisted African Americans, known as the Buffalo Soldiers
Albino Pérez	Following Santa Anna's centralization of the Mexican government through the Constitution of 1836, Pérez was appointed Governor of New Mexico. Despite his proven leadership ability, he failed to understand the realities of the northern frontier. He was brutally killed in August 1837 not long(...)
Alexander A. McSween	A contemporary and comrade of John Tunstall in the Lincoln County War, Tunstall and McSween hired local outlaws, such as Billy the Kid, to protect their land from the corrupt Murphy-Dolan Faction.
Alexander Sachs	Sachs was a Jewish American economist who delivered a letter to President Roosevelt from Einstein and Szilard. The letter informed the President of the growing German nuclear research and encouraged the President to build nuclear research capabilities. This letter spurred the start of the(...)
All Indian Pueblo Council	All Indian Pueblo Council (AIPC) is comprised of nineteen Sovereign Pueblos. These Pueblos are from New Mexico, with one from Texas: Pueblos of Acoma, Cochiti, Isleta, Jemez, Laguna, Nambe, Ohkay Owingeh, Picuris, Pojoaque, San Felipe, San Ildefonso, Sandia, Santa Ana, Santa Clara, Santo(...)
Allele	A variant of a gene.
allele	A specific version of a gene
Alliteration	In a line of poetry, a series of sounds consonants make at the beginning of or in the middle of words.
Alloparenting	Someone other than the mother provides help in caring for infants
Allusion	An indirect reference made to something else.
Alonso de Benavides	Benavides was a Portuguese Franciscan missionary who was active in New Mexico during the 16th and 17th centuries. He wrote several ethnographic works and coined the term "Navajo."
Alta California	Alta California, or Upper California, was a province created by the Viceroyalty of New Spain in 1804 called Alta California. Franciscan Friar Junípero Sera and Gaspar de Portolá established its first mission-and-presidio complex at San Diego in 1769.
Altamira	Upper Paleolithic cave art site in Spain known for its rendering of Pleistocene bison; discovered by Maria de Sautuloa (ca. 18,000-14,000 B.P.)
altar screens	Panels of religious paintings displayed directly above and behind an altar.
Altruism	Refers to any behavior that is designed to increase another person’s welfare, and particularly those actions that do not seem to provide a direct reward to the person who performs them.
Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca	A Spanish explorer of the New World, one of the four survivors of the Narváez Expedition shipwreck that claimed more than 300 lives. Traveled through the American Southwest for eight years.
Alvaro Obregón	Obregon's presidency of Mexico (1920-1924) was the first stable government since the start of the Mexican Revolution. Under his presidency he brought about education, socio economic and workers rights reforms into the country.
Alzheimer's disease	an irreversible, progressive brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills, and eventually the ability to carry out the simplest tasks
Amado Chaves	Chaves was a lifelong Republican and an active political figure in New Mexico during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In 1891, Governor L. Bradford Prince appointed him as the first Territorial Superintendent of Schools. During his tenure, he defended bilingual education in(...)
American Expeditionary Force	During World War I, the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) was sent to Europe to aid the allies in 1917. Not until further preparations, however, did the AEF join French and British forces in the late spring of 1918. Ultimately, the support of the AEF helped the allied forces emerge victorious(...)
AMH	stands for "anatomically modern human"; usually refers to skeletal remains that are essentially the same as modern humans (see Chapter 3)
amniotic sac	A fluid-filled sac that protects and contains the fetus in the uterus
Amygdala	A brain region responsible for regulating our perceptions of, and reactions to, aggression and fear.
amygdala	part of the limbic system in the brain, which is involved with emotions and emotional responses and is particularly active during puberty
anal stage	The stage of development when children are learning to control impulses; coincides with toddlerhood and toileting
anal stage	the second stage in Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, lasting from age 18 months to three years, during which time the anus is the primary erogenous zone and pleasure is derived from controlling bladder and bowel movements
Analysis	Separating complex ideas, materials, texts and studying their different parts in order to discover how the parts relate to one another
analytic thought	thought that results from analysis, such as a systematic ranking of pros and cons, risks and consequences, possibilities and facts. Analytic thought depends on logic and rationality
Analytical report	Presents information with a comprehensive analysis to solve problems, demonstrate relationships, or make recommendations.
Anapest	˘ ˘ ΄ Two light stresses followed by a heavy stress.
ancestor veneration	belief system in which the deceased have a continued existence and are able to influence the fortunes of the living; plastered skulls at Neolithic sites in the Near east may represent ancestor veneration
Ancestral Puebloan	Formerly known as the Anasazi, the Ancestral Puebloan people inhabited the present-day Four Corners region between about 550 and 1200 CE. They constructed housing sites such as those at Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde, and, as their name suggests, they were the forbears of the Pueblo peoples.
Anchoring and adjustment	A cognitive bias for an individual to rely too heavily on an initial piece of information offered (known as the "anchor") when making decisions.
Andalusia	The southernmost province of Spain. Its name is derived from Al-Andalus, a former Islamic stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula.
Andrés Juárez	A Spanish friar who hailed from Cordoba who directed the construction of the Pecos mission until its completion in 1625.
andropause	age-related hormone changes in men due to lower testosterone levels
Anglo	Although the term "Anglo" broadly refers to anyone of British or Anglo-Saxon linguistic descent, in New Mexico history the term refers to people from the Eastern United States who first migrated to the area in the 1820s. Following the U.S.-Mexico War, more and more Anglo Americans arrived in(...)
animal fat lamps	stone lamps filled with animal fat used in the interior of caves of the Upper Paleolithic (see Chapter 3)
Animatism	Generalized spirit that is like luck, charm, spirit, or charisma that can be transferred between objects or people.
Animism	The idea that the natural world is endowed with spirits, consciousness, and agency. Animals, plants, rocks, obejcts, weather, words, numbers can have animistic qualities.
animism	the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities
annealing	refers to heating metal in order to strengthen it. Often combined with forging.
anorexia nervosa	an eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. Affected individuals voluntarily undereat and often overexercise, depriving their vital organs of nutrition. Anorexia can be fatal
Anthropocene	Proposed epoch based on the idea that humans have had a geological impact on planetary systems of climate and environment.
Anthropocentrism	Perspective that humans are naturally superior to other life forms
Anthropomorphizing	Attributing human qualities to something
anticlerical	Anticlerical policies were those that opposed the political, economic, and social power of the Catholic Church. Nineteenth-century liberal leaders in Mexico, such as Benito Juárez, sought to curb the political power that the Catholic Church traditionally held by breaking up Church landholding(...)
antiquarianism	interest in artifacts as aesthetic objects only without concern for context or the information it can provide (see Chapter 1)
Antiquities Act	Edgar Lee Hewett played a central role in the passage of this legislation that gave the President of the United States the authority to designate certain places as National Monuments. The United States Congress passed the Antiquities Act in 1906.
Antonio de Espejo	The leader of a Spanish expedition into the Rio Grande Valley and New Mexico in 1582.
Antonio José Ortíz	A wealthy Spanish trader who established a system of patronage for the production of religious art. His donations led to the restoration of several famous churches in New Mexico.
Antonio José Otero	A circuit court judge in the mid 1880s who became the only person of Spanish and Mexican heritage to sit on the New Mexico Supreme Bench.
Antonio Joseph	Born in Taos in 1846, Joseph built a career as a territorial politician during his adult life. Between 1878 and 1880 he served as a judge in Taos County. He then moved to Ojo Caliente and was elected to the Territorial House of Representatives in 1882. For a full decade between 1885 and 1895(...)
Antonio López de Santa Anna	Santa Anna was President of the first Mexican Republic. He authorized and enacted the Siete Leyes.
Antonio Valverde	Valverde served as governor of New Mexico in 1716 and from 1718 to 1721. His politics largely involved stopping French encroachment into the Great Plains region.
Apache Summit	Under the leadership of Wendell Chino, the Mescalero Apaches created a ski resort, initially named Apache Summit. Today it is the Inn of the Mountain Gods.
Aphorism	A short phrase that contains a general truth.
Applied Anthropology	Field of anthropology that uses concepts and techniques to help solve modern-day problems, e.g., forensic anthropology
aptitude tests	used to measure a student’s ability to learn or to determine if a person has potential in a particular program
Arbitrariness	No connection between words and the things they represent.
Arbitration	A type of third-party intervention that avoids negotiation as well as the necessity of any meetings between the parties in conflict.
archaeological science	an approach to archaeology that applies scientific techniques to archaeological questions (see Chapter 1)
Archaeology	Field of anthropology interested in the human past through the study of material remains
archaeometallurgy	the study of metals in archaeology, how they were procured, modified, and used
Archaic	Marked by the characteristics of an earlier period; antiquated.
Archaic	term for the Mesolithic tradition in North America characteristic by broad-spectrum foraging and use of groundstone
Argument	The effort to use rhetorical appeals to influence an audience and achieve a certain set of purposes and outcomes; argumentative writing must take a stance.
Armijo	Armijo was a prominent Navajo headman at the time of the Long Walk. Upon undertaking the journey he reportedly stated, "Is it American justice that we must give up everything and receive nothing?" Along with headmen Manuelito and Barboncito, Armijo and several others signed the Treaty of 1868(...)
Army of the West	The Army of the West was the U.S. military unit that occupied New Mexico during the U.S.-Mexico War. Brigadier General Stephen Watts Kearny headed the Army of the West's 1,700 men. Following the successful occupation of Santa Fe, Kearny divided his forces and continued with 200 men toward(...)
Arranged Marriages	Marriages organized by people other than the bride and groom.
arthritis	inflammation of one or more of the joints, characterized by joint pain and stiffness, which typically worsen with age
Arthur Zimmermann	Zimmerman was State Secretary for Foreign Affairs (1916-1917) of the German Second Reich. During his lifetime Herr Zimmermann was closely associated with various groups intent on political revolution and rebellion in Ireland, India, and Russia.
Article IX (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo)	Article IX of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo states that Mexicans living in the ceded territories would become U.S. citizens, their liberty and property would be protected, and they would be free to exercise their Catholic religion.
Article VIII (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo)	In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Article VIII states that the property of Mexicans living in the ceded territories would be protected under U.S. administration. This article also granted these people the period of one year to declare their intentions to become U.S. citizens or to remain(...)
Article X (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo)	Article X of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo directly and unequivocally guaranteed the provisions of land grants issued by the Spanish and Mexican governments. The U.S. Congress struck the article from the final version of the treaty.
articulated	connected or put together; usually used in conjunction with skeletons; skeletons intentionally buried are often articulated while those exposed to the elements are not
artifact	portable object made or modified by humans (see Chapter 2)
artificial insemination	the deliberate introduction of sperm into a female’s cervix in order to become pregnant by means other than sexual intercourse
artificialism	the belief that environmental characteristics can be attributed to human actions or interventions
Ascribed	Status inherited or assigned
assemblage	group of related or spatially associated artifacts (see Chapter 2)
Assertation	Statement that presents a point of view.
Assimilation	A process in which our existing knowledge influences new conflicting information to better fit with our existing knowledge, thus reducing the likelihood of schema change.
assimilation	A cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge
assimilation	when we modify or change new information to fit into our schemas (what we already know)
Associated Press	Founded in New York in 1846, the Associated Press (AP) is a consortium of journalists dedicated to breaking important news stories at the national and international levels. Initially, the AP relied on couriers on horseback sponsored by five New York City newspapers to relay news of the(...)
Association learning	Occurs when an object or event comes to be associated with a natural response, such as an automatic behavior or a positive or negative emotion.
Athabaskan	A large family of indigenous languages in North America with two separate groups concentrated in the northwestern region of the continent and the U.S. Southwest. Since 2012 there has been a move toward referring to the Athabaskan linguistic group as Dene, the name for the language family used(...)
athletic coach style of parenting	the rules for behavior are consistent and objective and presented in that way. The parent’s role is to provide guidance while the child learns firsthand how to handle these situations
Atlanta University	In 1865 the American Missionary Association founded Atlanta University with support from the Freedmen's Bureau to provide education to newly freed African Americans in Georgia. By the 1870s, the university issued its first bachelor's degrees. Most of its graduates became teachers and(...)
atlatl	A prehistoric tool used for launching projectiles (usually spears) at higher velocities than they would otherwise travel when thrown by hand.
atlatl	early dart-throwing device that enabled more forceful throws; sometimes called a spear thrower (see Chapters 1 and 3)
attached specialists	craftsman associated with elite residences or structures
attachment	the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
Attachment style	Individual differences in how people relate to others in close relationships.
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder	a neurological and behavioral disorder in which a person has difficulty staying on task, screening out distractions, and inhibiting behavioral outbursts
Attitude	In a rhetorical situation, the orientation of the voice toward the message it wants to convey.
Attributional style	The type of attributions that we tend to make for the events that occur to us.
Attrition	Reduction in the number of research participants as some drop out over time
Aubade	A poem about the morning or dawn.
Audience	The individual or group whom the writer intends to address. The audience is the intended readers or listeners of a text
Aurelio Espinosa	In 1880, Espinosa was born in the area of present-day southern Colorado considered to be part of the nuevomexicano homeland. He received a Ph.D. in Folklore at the University of Chicago, and he taught at Stanford University. During his career, he catalogued and traced the origins of(...)
Aurora Lucero	An early advocate and educator defending the use of Spanish in the public school system in New Mexico during the 1860's.
Author	The originator or creator of a work, especially of a literary composition.
authoritarian parenting	the traditional model of parenting in which parents make the rules and children are expected to be obedient
authoritarian parenting	parenting style that is high in demandingness and low in support
Authoritarianism	Is a personality dimension that characterizes people who prefer things to be simple rather than complex and who tend to hold traditional and conventional values.
authoritative parenting	appropriately strict, reasonable, and affectionate. They are willing to negotiate when appropriate
authoritative parenting	parenting that is both demanding and supportive of the child
autism	a developmental disorder affecting communication and behavior
autism spectrum disorder	a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior
auto-sacrifice	offering of one's own blood
Automatic cognition	Thinking that occurs out of our awareness, quickly, and without taking much effort.
autonomy vs. shame and doubt	Erikson’s second crisis of psychosocial development, during which toddlers strive to gain a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies
Availability heuristic	The tendency to make judgments of the frequency of an event, or the likelihood that an event will occur, on the basis of the ease with which the event can be retrieved from memory.
average	children who receive an average number of positive and negative nominations from their peers
avocational archaeologists	non-professional person interested in archaeology (see Chapter 2)
axons	Fibers that extend from the neurons and transmit electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons
Ayumu	A chimpanzee who outcompetes humans in a working memory test
ayuntamientos	Ayuntamientos, or cabildos, were municipal governments during the Spanish colonial era in New Mexico.
Aztlán	Aztlán is the legendary home of the Aztec people. During the Chicano movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the notion of Aztlán provided legitimacy to the notion that the U.S. Southwest was the historical homeland of the Indo-hispano, or Chicano, people.
B.C.	before Christ, equivalent to B.C.E. or Before Common/Current Era; typically placed after the date as in 200 B.C. (see Chapter 2)
B.C.E.	Before Common/Current Era; equivalent to B.C. (see Chapter 2)
B.P.	before present (see Chapter 2)
babbling	an infant’s repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old
Ballad	A poem written in quatrains and A B C B rhyme. The first and third lines contain eight syllables, while the second and fourth lines contain six. According to Robin Skelton, the most common rhyme scheme is iambic tetrameter alternating with iambic trimeter.
ballcourt	arena for Mesoamerican ritualized game associated with fertility, sacrifice and militarism; also found in the Hohokam region of the American Southwest
Bandelier National Monument	Ancestral Puebloans occupied Bandelier from 1150 to 1550 CE. Their homes were carved out of volcanic tuff and their fields were placed strategically on mesa tops.
Barboncito	Navajo chief, know as "Peace Chief" who successfully negotiated the return of the Navajo people to their lands with General Sherman
barrios	neighborhoods of foreign enclaves found at the city of Teotihuacán in Mexico
Bartolomé de Ojeda	Ojeda was the Zia informant for Diego de Vargas during his expedition into Santa Fe.
Bascom Affair	In February 1861, Lieutenant George N. Bascom of the 7th U.S. Infantry traveled to Apache Pass, Arizona, with orders to locate a boy taken captive by Apaches a few months earlier. Curious about the presence of the soldiers, Cochise approached Bascom's camp and was invited into his tent for(...)
Base rates	The likelihood that events occur across a large population.
Battle of Agua Prieta	On November 1, 1915, carrancista forces under General Plutarco Elías Calles routed Pancho Villa's army at Agua Prieta, adjacent to Douglas, Arizona, on the U.S.-Mexico Border. The battle devastated Villa's forces and continued to erode his former reputation for invincibility. Additionally,(...)
Battle of Ciudad Juárez	Over a period of a few weeks in April and May of 1911, maderista forces under Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa defeated the Mexican Federal army at Ciudad Juárez. The battle illustrated the strength of the Mexican Revolution and forced the aging dictator Porfirio Díaz into exile in Europe.
BCE	A naming abbreviation used in the calendar era, it stands for Before Common Era, which corresponds to BC (Before Christ) in the Anno Domini designation.
bed-sharing	When two or more people sleep in the same bed
Bedonkohe	Translates to "In front of the end people" or "standing in front of the enemy." This Northeastern Chiricahua band lived in the Mogollon Mountains and Tularosa Mountains.
behavioral decision-making theory	proposes that adolescents and adults both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action. However, research has shown that adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards, particularly social rewards, than do adults
behavioral genetics	One of the fastest-growing areas within the field of lifespan development and studies the effects of heredity on behavior
behavioral genetics	The empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior
Behavioral measures	Measures designed to directly assess what people do.
behavioral perspective	The approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
Behaviorism	An approach to studying behavior that stresses learning through a system of rewards and punishments.
Benito Juárez	Juárez was a liberal Mexican reformer during the Mexican American War. At one time he denied Santa Ana refuge, later fled to New Orleans, only to return to Mexico in 1855 and became Mexican President two years later.
Benjamin Harrison	The 23rd President of the U.S., Harrison championed the the creation of the National Forests. As President , he supported anti-trust laws, civil rights, and increased the capacity of the U.S Navy.
Berber Muslims	An ethnic group indigenous to North Africa.
bereavement	the period of mourning following the death of someone
Bernardo Abeyta	Founder of the New Mexico Penitente Brotherhood in the late 19th Century. He was also credited with the construction of the Santuario de Chimayó.
Bernardo de Gálvez	A Spanish military leader who was the governor of Louisiana and later Viceroy of New Spain. He also initiated a number of peace establishments with the Apache to lessen Spanish-Apache violence.
bias	inclination towards a particular perspective, a prejudice (see Chapter 1)
Biased	Having preconceived ideas about someone or something
biface	a stone tool that has been worked (pieces removed) from both faces; a projectile point is a kind of biface
Bigotes	Bigotes is the leader of a delegation from Pecos Pueblo who visited Coronado after his conquest of Hawikuh. The Spaniards called him Bigotes because he had a mustache, which was unusual for a Native American. Bigotes later guided Coronado's men on a journey to the Great Plains.
Billy the Kid	A western frontier outlaw, and participant in the Lincoln County Wars.
binge-eating disorder	an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food (often very quickly and to the point of discomfort); a feeling of a loss of control during the binge; experiencing shame, distress or guilt afterwards; and not regularly using unhealthy compensatory(...)
bioecological model	The perspective suggesting that multiple levels of the environment interact with biological potential to influence development
Biological Anthropology	Field of anthropology interested in human biology and how it intersects with human culture.
bioturbation	disturbance of archaeological remains as a result of plant and animal activity (see Chapter 2)
Black Legend	A type of historical writing that demonizes Spanish colonizers, depicting them as cruel and inhumane, sometimes butchering natives and feeding them to dogs.
Black sheep effect	The strong devaluation of ingroup members who threaten the positive image and identity of the ingroup.
Blaming the victim	Interpreting the negative outcomes that occur to others internally so that it seems that they deserved them.
Blank verse	A form that lends itself well to a meditative voice, blank verse is written in iambic pentameter lines that do not rhyme.
Blombos Cave	cave in South Africa with evidence for early use of red ocher about 100,000 years ago; Sites like Blombos suggest the Cognitive Revolution occurred much earlier than 40,000 years ago, where there is a great deal of evidence for modernity appears in the archaeological record in Europe (see Chapter 3)
bloom	a spongy mass of solid metallic iron created by heating iron in a reducing atmosphere with charcoal: FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
blue zones	regions of the world where Dan Buettner claims people live much longer than average
Boarding Schools	Established in the U.S. during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, these schools were intended to culturally assimilate native american youths and children into European American standards
Bodily Self-Recognition	Ability to recognize one's own body, usually tested using the mark test.
body dissatisfaction	negative subjective evaluation of the weight and shape of one’s own body, which may predict the onset, severity, and treatment outcomes of eating disorders
body image	a person’s idea of how his or her body looks
Bonampak	Classic Maya site in Chiapas known for its murals of war captives and elite bloodletting
bone chemistry	using isotopes preserved in bone collagen to gain an understanding of human diets
Booster Literature	During New Mexico's territorial period, land speculators and other people hoping to create new, prosperous towns published broadsides, pamphlets, and newspaper articles to attract outsiders to relocate to their new settlements. At times, family members sent letters to their relatives in other(...)
Bosque Redondo	A former indian reservation, near Fort Sumner, New Mexico, in which several Native American tribes, Apache and Navajo, were forced to live in by the U.S. Government. The Navajo journey to Bosque Redondo is referred to as the "Long Walk."
Boucher de Perthes	Boucher de Perthes realized, based on excavations at Sommes, France, that archaeological remains were older than previously thought, beyond early Biblical estimates (see Chapter 1)
Bourbon Reforms	Economic and political legislation introduced by Spanish Kings under the House of Bourbon with the intention of introducing the latest manufacturing technology and European Enlightenment thought to modernize a declining Spain.
bow and arrow	evidence for the bow and arrow becomes prevalent in the Mesolithic; Bow and arrows come into use in the Americas around AD 800
brain dead	when all brain function ceases to occur
Brainstorm	A spontaneous group discussion to produce ideas and ways of solving problems.
Brideservice	When the groom must serve the wife’s family.
Bridewealth	Gift or money from the groom’s family or descent group to the bride’s family.
broadside	A large sheet of paper printed only on one side. Generally used for posters, announcements, advertisementsit was a common form of printed material between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Buffalo Soldiers	African American army soldiers who after the Civil War, were posted to the American West to fight the indian wars and protect settlers. Indians referred to them as Buffalo because of their dark skin, curly hair and courage on the battlefield.
bulimia nervosa	an eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxatives
bultos	Works of art, statues, figures, etc.
Butterfield Overland Mail Company	Longest stagecoach line in world history at approximately 2,812 miles. Major factor in settlement and development of Arkansas and American west.
C.E.	Current/Common Era; equivalent to AD (see Chapter 2)
Cabildo	A Spanish form of municipal or town council government during the colonial and postcolonial periods.
Cahokia	large urban Mississippian center located in Illinois, not far from present-day St. Louis Missouri
Calendar Round	combination of the Haab and Tzolk'in which repeated every 52 years
Call Systems	Vocal communication in animals.
Camino Real de Tierra Adentro	"The Royal Road," a trade route set by the Spanish that connected Mexico City to outposts and settlements further northward in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico.
canal irrigation	human-made waterway system to support agricultural fields
Cannon Air Force Base	Originally established in 1942 as Army Air Base, Clovis, the facility was initially used to train bomber units for service in the South Pacific during World War II. Although Cannon Air Force Base was slated for closure in 2005, Senator Pete Dominici and Governor Bill Richardson pressured(...)
Canyon de Chelly	Canyon de Chelly was the home of the Navajo tribe until the New Mexico governor Lt. Antonio Narbona invaded by force in 1805. In 1863 Kit Carson sent some of his troops to put an end to the canyon and defeat the Navajo tribe, by doing so they led them to surrender and move to Bosque Redondo, NM.
Caption	Text that describes an image. It appears outside the image, usually below it.
caravels	A small, highly maneuverable ship designed and used by the Portuguese in their exploration of West Africa and the Atlantic during the 15th Century.
Carl Gorman	Carl Gorman was a Navajo Code Talker during World War II to keep the Japanese from cracking their code for the Marines while at Guadalcanal. Gorman passed away in 1998 at the age of 90 and is remembered for "fighting for the right to speak."
Case study	Exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation
Casmiro Barela	Born in New Mexico, Barela became a territorial legislator and helped craft the State of Colorado Constitution.
caste system	A system of racial categorization used in the Spanish colonies in which those who claimed pure Spanish blood (limpieza de sangre) stood at the top, followed by people of mixed-race heritage that served as peasant laborers or house servants. At the bottom were slaves of African descent.
casting metal	means melting the metal and shaping it in a mold
Catalectic	An incomplete line of metrical poetry in which the last syllable or foot is dropped.
Çatalhöyük	early Neolithic village site on the Konya Plain of south-central Turkey; contains the earliest known interior house in the world, paintings and Ian Hodder heads up excavations at the site
Catharsis	The idea that engaging in less harmful aggressive actions will reduce the tendency to aggress later in a more harmful way.
Catlectic	An incomplete line of metrical poetry in which the last syllable or foot is dropped.
Causal attribution	The process of trying to determine the causes of people’s behavior
CE	A naming abbreviation used in the calendar era, it stands for Common Era, which corresponds to AD in the Anno Domini designation.
centenarians	people aged 100 or older
Central Acropolis at Tik'al	area at Tikal, Guatemala where lords lived and conducted their activities; located south of the great plaza, spreads over four acres and contains 42 multistory buildings
Central Kalahari Game Reserve	Refuge created for wildlife that resulted in the eviction of Kalahari foragers
Central traits	The traits of warm and cold.
Centralists	In the years following Mexico's Independence, Centralists were those who favored a strong central government in Mexico City with little power for regional or local jurisdictions. They generally supported a return to the colonial social, religious, and political status quo. Federalists, on the(...)
centration	the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation, while disregarding all others
cephalocaudal	Refers to growth and development that occurs from the head down
cesarean section	Is the use of surgery to deliver babies through the mother’s abdomen and uterus
Chaco Canyon	a World Heritage Ancestral Pueblo site located in the San Juan Basin of New Mexico; is known for its large Great Houses like Pueblo Bonito
Chaco cylinder vessels	cylinder-shaped vessels found at Chacoan great houses which contain evidence of liquid chocolate, a Mesoamerican product
Chamuscado-Rodríguez Expedition	An expedition in 1581 led by Francisco Sanchez, called "El Chamuscado," and Friar Augustin Rodriguez that visited the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico for the first time since Coronado's expedition. This small encounter would revive Spanish interest in the region.
Characters	The people who inhabit the story and move it forward.
Charles Beaubien	Beaubien was a Canadian fur-trapper who had migrated to New Mexico in 1823. Four years later, he married Taos native María Paula Lobato and opened a mercantile business. In an effort to evade taxes imposed by the Mexican national government in 1840, he allied with Guadalupe Miranda (secretary(...)
Charles Drew	First Lieutenant Charles Drew was appointed as U.S. Indian Agent to the Chiricahua Apaches at Fort McRae in 1869. Historians have characterized him as one of the best agents assigned to the tribe. The Chiricahua people, including Victorio and Loco, trusted Drew due to his efforts to attend to(...)
Charles I. McNary	McNary was the Oregon Senate Minority Leader who claimed that a full quorum was not present in an effort to protest Senator Dennis Chávez's recitation of the Oath of Office.
Charles Siringo	Siringo was a Pinkerton Detective Agent most noted for providing information that led to the killing of Butch Cassidy and Sundance Kid. In 1916, Siringo was a New Mexico Ranger and a writer.
chattel slavery	Chattel slavery is the type of slavery that was common in the American South prior to the Civil War. Unlike other forms of bondage or captivity, chattel slaves were considered as no more than property to be bought and sold at the whims of their owners.
Cherry Picking	Selecting the evidence that confirms your hypothesis while ignoring results that do not.
Chester Nez	Last original Navajo Code Talker to serve in World War II. In 2001, Mr. Nez received the Congressional Medal of Honor from President George H. Bush.
Chester Nimitz	High ranking and respected Admiral during WWII in the Pacific Theater. Along with MacArthur, Nimitz helped seal the U.S. victories in the Pacific.
Ch'i-Yen-Shih	In this Chinese pattern, each line contains seven monosyllabic words with a caesura after each fourth word. The rhyme scheme is comprised of the pattern A B C B.
chiaroscuro	use of contrast between dark and light to create an artistic effect
Chichimeca Wars	A military conflict between the Spanish and Chichimeca natives that lasted from 1550 to 1590. It was the longest and costliest war in the history of New Spain.
Chichimecas	Spanish for "lineage of the dog," the term referred to nomadic natives of Mexico and the American Southwest, used in a derogatory manner by the Spaniards since they often attacked trade convoys.
Chihenne	Apache tribe, translates to "Red Painted People."
Child Betrothal	A system in which children are promised in marriage.
Chimayó Rebellion	Alternatively called the Chimayó Rebellion, the Revolt of 1837, or the guerra de los chimayosos, the 1837 conflict was an outgrowth of the Centralist-Federalst political divides that precipitated Texans to declare independence from Mexico. In New Mexico, grievances were much more localized.(...)
chinampa	A Mesoamerican agricultural method using small, rectangular areas of fertile land to grow crops in the shallow lake beds of the Valley of Mexico.
chlamydia	a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium chlamydia trachomatis
Christopher “Kit” Carson	A legend during his own lifetime, Kit Carson was known as a heroic western guide, trapper, and soldier. Although he was deeply conflicted about the order to force the Navajo people on the Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo in 1863, Carson carried out a brutal scorched-earth campaign that forced(...)
chromosome	A DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism
chronic inflammation	when the body’s immune system is working to fight off infections and toxins for prolonged periods of time, having a negative impact on tissues and organs
Chronological order	Presenting an idea or story in the order in which the events happened, from first to last event.
chronosystem	The environmental events and transitions that occur throughout a child’s life, including any socio-historical events
chunkey stone	a game played by throwing a spear at a rolling stone in an attempt to land the spear where the stone falls over; evidence for the game of chunkey exists at the Mississippian site of Cahokia
Cicuye	Cicuye Pueblo (also called Pecos Pueblo by the Spanish) is located about 25 miles east of Santa Fe, New Mexico. Francisco Vasquez de Coronado brought his army to Cicuye after in the late 1500’s and early 1600’s the Spanish started building missions here.
Cinquain	A five-line stanza with the syllable count 2 4 6 8 2.
circumcision	The surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis
cisgender	an umbrella term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex
Citation	The information that documents the source from which an author took content. Citations that are in a print book’s footnotes and end notes are stored in Remarks.
Ciudad Chihuahua	A present-day Mexican municipality that was a prosperous mining town along the Camino Real during the the 1700s. Its development attracted settlers and trade that would reinvigorate the New Mexico colony.
Claims	The details, facts, and explanations that help clarify the main point of an essay
clans	are lineages commonly tied to a distant ancestor, frequently an animal; examples include Scottish clans and Pueblo clans
Classic Maya	Mesoamerican culture known for its writing system, calendars, competing polities, a masonry temples (AD 200-900)
classical conditioning	A type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response
classification	the arrangement of information into categories or classes
Cleofas Jaramillo	A late 19th and early 20th century New Mexican historian. She was actively involved in preservation of the traditions and cultures of New Mexico.
Clever Hans Effect	Picking up on subtle cues to elicit the appropriate response.
Cliché	A phrase that is so overused that its use results in unoriginal and unimaginative expression.
Cliff Fragua	Jemez Pueblo sculptor commissioned by the state of New Mexico to create a statue of Po'pay. The statue is the second work representing New Mexico and 100th of the collection for the Statuary Hall of the U.S. Capitol.
climacteric	term used to describe the menopausal period and hormonal changes associated with the gradual change in ovarian production
clinical death	when the individual is brain dead
Clinton Greaves	For his actions as a Buffalo Soldier in the United States Army, Clinton Greaves received the Medal of Honor after the American Indian Wars.
Clinton P. Anderson	Clinton Presba Anderson was a well-known Democratic politician in New Mexico. He served as U.S. Representative from 1941 to 1945, as the Secretary of Agriculture from 1945 to 1948, and as a U.S. Senator of New Mexico from 1949 to 1973.
clique	used to describe a group of persons who interact with each other more regularly and intensely than others in the same setting. Cliques are distinguished from “crowds” in that their members interact with one another
Close relationships	Relationships between people that are characterized by loving, caring, commitment, and intimacy.
Closing paragraph	The final paragraph in an essay, which should not introduce new claims, but should instead wrap up the paper, explain how the paper proves the thesis, or explain the paper opens up additional thinking about your subject.
Clyde Tingley	Tingley served as the 11th Governor of New Mexico and was a proponent of Roosevelt's New Deal policies. As Mayor of Albuquerque, he is well know from bringing Siberian Elms to the state, frequently called "Tingley Elms."
co-sleeping	A custom in which parents and their children (usually infants) sleep together in the same room
Coahuila y Texas	While under Mexican rule between 1821 and 1836, Texas was not recognized as an independent state or province within the republic. Instead, it was part of a dual-jurisdiction connected to the province of Coahuila. The capital city was at Saltillo, something that Texan leaders, both Anglo and(...)
Cochise	Chokonen (the central Chiricahua band) headman Cochise narrowly escaped death at the hands of Lieutenant Bascom in early 1861. With his father-in-law Mangas Coloradas, he waged war against the U.S. military throughout the early 1860s. In the early 1870s he negotiated the settlement of his(...)
cochlear implant	electronic device that consists of a microphone, a speech processor, and an electrode array to directly stimulate the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain
codices	Maya bark paper books
Cognitive accessibility	The extent to which a schema is activated in memory and thus likely to be used in information processing.
Cognitive dissonance	The discomfort that occurs when we behave in ways that we see as inappropriate, such as when we fail to live up to our own expectations.
Cognitive heuristics	Information-processing rules of thumb that enable us to think in ways that are quick and easy but that may sometimes lead to error.
cognitive neuroscience	The scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes
cognitive perspective	an approach that focuses on the process that allows people to know, understand, and think about the world
Cognitive Revolution	the shift to modern human behavior including art, ritual, complex tools, music, and symbolic thought. The Cognitive Revolution has roots going back 100,000 years ago as evidenced by the use of red ocher in South Africa (Chapter 3)
cohabitation	an arrangement where two people who have not married live together
Cohort	A group of people who are born at roughly the same period in a particular society. Cohorts share histories and contexts for living
Collective action	The attempts on the part of one group to change the social status hierarchy by improving the status of their own group relative to others.
Collective Efforescence	Intense feeling of togetherness and ecstatic excitement that accompanies ritual.
Collectivism	The idea that people should be more fundamentally connected with others and thus more oriented toward interdependence.
colostrum	The first secretion from the mammary glands after giving birth, rich in antibodies
Columbian Exchange	The intercontinental exchange of goods, disease, language, and technology between the Americas, Africa, and Eurasia after Christopher Columbus's initial voyage to the New World in 1492.
Coming of Age Ceremonies	Rituals that mark the transition from childhood to adulthood.
Commitment	The feelings and actions that keep partners working together to maintain the relationship.
Common-causal variables	Variables that are not part of the research hypothesis but that cause both the predictor and the outcome variable and thus produce the observed correlation between them.
Common ingroup identity	The attempt to reduce prejudice by creating a superordinate categorization.
Communal relationships	Close relationships in which partners suspend their need for equity and exchange, giving support to the partner in order to meet his or her needs, and without consideration of the costs to themselves.
Communicators	Senders and receivers of messages in a communicative interaction. Because we are continuously sending and receiving verbal and/or nonverbal messages, we are simultaneously both a sender and receiver in interactions. For example, in a face-to-face interaction, the other communicator may be(...)
compadrazgo	Compadrazgo was (and is) a system of spiritual kinship that is very similar to godparentage. In New Mexico, the practice dated back to the arrival of Spanish conquistadores and it continues even today. During the nineteenth century, compadrazgo involved more than choosing godparents for a(...)
Companionate love	Love that is based on friendship, mutual attraction, common interests, mutual respect, and concern for each other’s welfare.
Comparison	Discusses elements that are similar
compartmentalize	The organization and division of Pueblo culture to preserve individual identity at the face of Spanish and Christian encroachment.
complicated grief	when feelings of grief are persistent and incapacitating
Comprehension	Discusses elements that are similar
Comprehensive Orders for the New Discoveries	This body of legislation gave Catholic missionaries the primary role in the colonization process. The regulations expressly prohibited the use of the word “conquest,” in favor of the more diplomatic term “pacification.” Royal officials forbade unsanctioned colonization expeditions in hopes of(...)
Concept	In advertising, the theme of a brand, which is relayed through the message, the product, the color choices, the layout design, and the graphic elements
Conceptual variables	The characteristics that we are trying to measure.
Concision	The art of using the fewest words possible to convey an idea
Conclusion	The final paragraph in an essay, which should not introduce new claims, but should instead wrap up the paper, explain how the paper proves the thesis, or explain the paper opens up additional thinking about your subject.
concrete operational stage	The stage in which children can think logically about real (concrete) events, have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies, lasts from about 7 to 11 years old
concrete operational stage of cognitive development	Piaget’s stage of development during middle childhood that emphasizes the use of logical thought, especially as applied to concrete, or physical objects
Concrete	Words that refer to something with physical properties that can be experiences with the five senses such as “chair,” water,” or “cat.”
Conditioned Response	When a response becomes associated with a stimulus.
conductive hearing loss	failure in the vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles
Confirmation bias	The tendency for people to favor information that confirms their expectations, regardless of whether the information is true.
Conflict	The primary problem or obstacle that unfolds in the plot that the protagonist must solve or overcome by the end of the narrative
Conformity	The change in beliefs, opinions, and behaviors as a result of our perceptions about what other people believe or do.
congruence	An instance or point of agreement or correspondence between the ideal self and the real self in Rogers’ humanistic personality theory
conservation	The idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added, usually develops during the concrete operational stage
Conservation Refugees	People evicted from ancestral lands in the name of animal conservation
Consonance	Edward Hirsch defines this as “the audible repetition of consonant sounds in words encountered near each other whose vowel sounds are different”—flower-fades-fruit: fow-fay-frew.
conspicuous consumption	extravagant public displays of wealth and power
Constitution of 1812	This Spanish constitution established the principles of universal male suffrage, the constitutional monarchy, freedom of the press, and supported many liberal policies for the country.
Constitution of 1824	Established the rights and responsibilities of the United Mexican States.
Constitution of 1836	Enacted under President Santa Anna in 183, the Siete Leyes (seven laws) were constitutional changes provided for a stronger federal government oversight and administration for the first Mexican Republic.
Constitutional Amendments	Changes to the U.S. Constitution made though Congress. Important constitutional amendments can make monumental changes in the laws of the U.S. such as the 13th Amendment which abolished slavery.
constructivist perspective	based on the work of Piaget, a quantitative, stage-theory approach. This view hypothesizes that adolescents’ cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and drastic, as adolescents learn by acting on their environment and they actively construct knowledge
consul	An official representative of one nation to another. Many U.S cites contain consulates from other nations. For example, there is a Mexican Consulate in Albuquerque. During the dispute over repatriation in the late 1840s, Mexican officials appointed Manuel Armendáriz as consul to New Mexico.
Contact hypothesis	The idea that intergroup contact will reduce prejudice,
Content	Refers to all the written substance in a document.
content analysis	Involves looking at media such as old texts, pictures, commercials, lyrics or other materials to explore patterns or themes in culture
Context	The circumstances that form the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and in terms of which it can be fully understood and assessed.
context	location of an artifact and the surrounding matrix (see Chapter 1)
Context-Specific	The idea that human language is reliant on cultural context for interpretation.
contextual perspective	A theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, and social worlds
continuity theory	suggests that as people age, they continue to view the self in much of the same way as they did when they were younger
continuous development	the idea that development is a progressive and cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills
Contrast	Discusses elements that are different.
Contributions dilemma	When the short-term costs of a behavior lead individuals to avoid performing it, and this may prevent the long-term benefits that would have occurred if the behaviors had been performed.
control beliefs	the belief that an individual can influence life outcomes, encompassing estimations of relevant external constraints and our own capabilities
control group	A comparison group that is equivalent to the experimental group, but is not given the independent variable
Controlled cognition	When we deliberately size up and think about something—for instance another person.
Controlling idea	The main idea upon which a writer builds their thesis statement.
controversial	children who are either strongly liked or strongly disliked by quite a few peers
conventional moral development	stages 3 and 4 of moral development where morality is internalized, and the concern is on society norms
Conversión de San Pedro	In the 1620s, Franciscan leaders dubbed the New Mexico mission field the "Conversión de San Pedro," hearkening to the Conversion of St. Peter that was celebrated in Colonial Spanish territories on January 25.
Cooperation	When we trust the people or groups with whom we are interacting and are willing to communicate and share with others.
correlation	The relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does
correlation coefficient	Number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r
Correlational research	To search for and test hypotheses about the relationships between two or more variables.
correlational research	Research design with the goal of identifying patterns of relationships, but not cause and effect
cortés	Word meaning 'polite' in English.
cortex	The outer layers of the brain in humans and other mammals. Most thinking, feeling, and sensing involves the cortex
Counterargument	An argument that is opposed to another argument.
Counterfactual thinking	The tendency to think about events according to what might have been.
County Home Demonstration Agents	Beginning in the 1910s, County Home Demonstration Agents traveled throughout rural New Mexico to teach rural nuevomexicanas "modern" methods of preserving food (canning rather than drying), practicing hygeine, and rearing children. New Deal Agencies like the WPA provided new funds for County(...)
Couplet	A stanza comprised of two lines.
Cover story	A false statement of what the research was really about.
Craft Specialization	When people produce goods in exchange for food.
craft specialization	when a portion of society is devoted full-time to making goods
Craig Vincent	Craig Vincent was a civil rights activist in Taos, best known for his marraige to the beloved New Mexico folk singer Jenny Vincent. The couple supported Chicano rights and the efforts of Taos Pueblo to secure their claim to Blue Lake. Jenny sang for striking miners in southern New Mexico, an(...)
criados	Captive children from the "rescate" practice.
criollo	A person of Spanish heritage born and raised in the colonies.
CRISPR	a gene-editing tool
Cristóbal de Oñate	Father of Juan de Oñate and a high ranking official in the New Spanish colonies, largely credited for the founding of the city of Guadalajara in 1531.
Critical Thinking	The act of being openly engaged with a text while considering its multiple possibilities.
cross-sectional research	Used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time; may confound age and cohort differences
crowds	large groups of adolescents defined by their shared image and reputation
crucible	is a ceramic or metal container in which metals are melted
crystallized intelligence	knowledge, skills, and experience acquired over a lifetime, accessible via memory and expressible in word/number form
Cuauhtémoc	An Aztec Emperor who ascended the throne in 1520 at the height of Spanish conquest. He was captured and tortured several times and later made a puppet figure under Spanish rule.
Cuerno Verde	"Green Horn" in English and Tabivo Naritgant in his native language, he was a leader of the Comanche during the late 18th Century who fought against and was eventually killed by the Spanish.
Culiacán	The northwestern Mexican city where Cabeza de Vaca ended his expedition and Coronado began his search of the Cities of Gold.
Cultural Anthropology	Field of anthropology interested in human culture
Cultural Relativism	Suspending judgment of a culture in order to understand why people do what they do
cultural resource management (CRM)	professional field that is aimed at conserving and managing archaeological and historical sites (see Chapter 2)
Cultural Transmission	Behavior that is learned. Humans learn the language of their environment.
Cultural Universals	Features that are common to all human societies
Culture	Traditions, beliefs, and values tramsmitted through learning
Culture	A group of people, normally living within a given geographical region, who share a common set of social norms, including religious and family values and moral beliefs.
Culture	Blueprint or guideline shared by a group of people that specifies how to live; passed down from generation to generation; learned from parents and others
Culture Shock	Anxiety as a result of being immersed in a foreign culture
curation	storage and conservation of archaeological remains and field notes (see Chapter 1)
cutting date	refers to the year a beam was cut
Dactyl	΄ ˘ ˘ A heavy stress followed by two light stresses.
Daina	This Latvian form consists of a quatrain of trochaic octometer lines with feminine endings. Although there are no end rhymes, alliteration and internal rhymes are common.
Daniel Boone	An American explorer who carved out the first trails that allowed settlement of lands west of the Appalachians.
Daniel Webster	Best known as a constitutional scholar and attorney, Webster was a prominent figure supporting preservation of the Union during the years preceding the Civil War.
Data	Pieces of information.
Database	A collection of (usually) organized information in a regular structure, usually but not necessarily in a machine-readable format accessible by a computer.
David Cargo	Cargo served as New Mexico Governor between 1967 and 1971. He was away fro the state during the Alianza courthouse raid in June of 1967, so Lieutenant Governor E. Lee Francis coordinated efforts to force Tijerina's surrender. As governor, Cargo's most prominent legacy was his creation of the(...)
debt peonage	A person's pledge of their labor or services as payment for a debt. It can be transferred to future generations if the debt is unpaid.
Deductive Reasoning	Beginning an argument with a general principle, which is referred to as a major premise, then a related premise is applied to the major premise and a conclusion is formed.
deductive reasoning	reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, though logical steps to figure out (deduce) specifics. Also called top-down processing
Deena J. González	An accomplished historian and New Mexico native who has done extensive work exposing the historical contributions of women and people of color to the state of New Mexico.
Deep History	an approach to studying the past that rejects the idea that writing systems are a useful way to divide up time. Deep History considers all of the past to be just history. It also examines past behaviors in order to shed light on the current human condition (see Chapter 1)
defense mechanisms	Psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings
Deities	Supreme supernatural beings.
delayed gratification	the ability to hold out for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller immediate reward
Delgadito	Delgadito was the headman of the Canoncito band among the Navajo people. In 1863, his band was the first to surrender to Kit Carson at Fort Wingate and then make the Long Walk to Bosque Redondo.
delirium	an abrupt change in the brain that causes mental confusion and emotional disruption. It makes it difficult to think, remember, sleep, pay attention, and more
demandingness	the degree to which a parent controls their child’s behavior
dementia	a cause of neurocognitive disorder, characterized by progressive and gradual cognitive deficits due to severe cerebral atrophy
Democrats, Northern	During the presidential election of 1846, the Democratic Party was split into three factions. The Northern Democrats supported the Lincoln Administration. Northern Democrats resisted slavery, while Southern Democrats supported slavery.
Democrats, Southern	In the latter half of the nineteenth century, Southern Democrats in Congress tended to support policies that promised to maintain segregation and "slavery under another name" in their home jurisdictions.
dendrites	Fibers that extend from neurons and receive electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons
dendrochronology	The science of dating tree rings to determine historical weather and geological patterns in the area surrounding the tree's habitat at a given time.
dendrochronology	tree-ring dating; dating of archaeological specimens based on the annual growth of tree rings (see Chapter 2)
Dennis Chávez	Democrat Dennis Chávez served as one of New Mexico's Senators between 1934 and his death in 1964. He worked tirelessly to bring federal funds to the state, particularly in the form of the Hispanic New Deal during the Depression era.
dental caries	cavities
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)	A helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs
Dependent variable	The variable that is measured after the manipulations have occurred.
dependent variable	The outcome or variable that is supposedly affected by the independent variable
descriptive studies	Research focused on describing an occurrence
Desensitization	The tendency to become used to, and thus less influenced by, a stimulus.
deviant peer contagion	process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior
dialectical thought	the ability to reason from multiple perspectives and synthesize various viewpoints in order to come up with new ideas
Diction	Word choice.
Diego de Archuleta	Diego de Archuleta was a politician and military officer during the Mexican period in New Mexico history. During the U.S.-Mexico War, he served as Governor Armijo's second-in-command and he favored armed resistance to the American occupation. His opposition to the U.S. presence in New Mexico(...)
Diego de Vargas	Vargas served as the governor of New Mexico from 1688 to 1697. He successfully reconquered the territory after the 1680 Pueblo Revolt.
Diego Dionisio de Peñalosa	Peñalosa served as the 19th Spanish governor of New Mexico. His comparatively positive treatment of the natives earned him hostility from the evangelizing missionaries. After being declared a heretic and later forced into exile, he resisted Spanish colonizing efforts in the New World by siding(...)
Diego Dionisio de Peñalosa	Peñalosa served as the 19th Spanish governor of New Mexico. His comparatively positive treatment of the natives earned him hostility from the evangelizing missionaries. After being declared a heretic and later forced into exile, he resisted Spanish colonizing efforts in the New World by siding(...)
diffusion	refers to the process of cultural traits spreading from one region to another
Dimeter	A two-foot line
Diné	The Navajo name for their nation and people, Diné literally means "the people.
Dinétah	The traditional homeland of the Navajo tribe which includes northwestern New Mexico, southwestern Colorado, southeastern Utah, and northeastern Arizona.
direct historical approach	making inferences about the past based on a connection between modern and past people
discontinuous development	idea that development takes place in unique stages and occurs at specific times or ages
Discrimination	Unjustified negative behaviors toward members of outgroups based on their group membership.
disenfranchised grief	grief that is not acknowledged by others
disengagement theory	suggests that during late adulthood, the individual and society mutually withdraw
disorganized attachment (type D)	a type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return
Displaced aggression	Occurs when negative emotions caused by one person trigger aggression toward a different person.
Displacement	Ability to communicate ideas that are not in the immediate environment or that exist only in the imagination.
Distributive fairness	Our judgments about whether or not a party is receiving a fair share of the available rewards.
divided attention	the ability to pay attention to two or more stimuli at the same time; this ability improves during adolescence
dizygotic	Derived from two separate ova
Dodoitsu	This Japanese form is composed of four lines with the syllable count 7 7 7 5. There is no rhyme or set meter.
Dolní Věstonice	An archaeological site in the Czech Republic with evidence for early ritual.
Dolni Vestonice	Upper Paleolithic open-air site in the Czech Republic; known for shaman's hut, Venus of Vestonice, and triple burial
Dolores Huerta	Labor leader and activist, who along with César Chávez founded the National Farmworkers Association, later known as the United Farm Workers union.
domestic context	a household
domestication	altering or interfering with the reproduction of another species to produce favorable changes for humans
Dominant response	The action that we are most likely to emit in any given situation.
Domingo Jironza Pétriz de Cruzate	A titular Spanish governor of New Mexico from 1683-1686 and 1689-1691. He failed to reconquer the territory from the Pueblo Natives.
don/doña	Don is an honorific title used in Spanish language to show deference to people considered to be most powerful in a local society. The use of the title could also simply show that a person held a title of nobility at whatever level. Don was the form used to address men; doña used to address(...)
dopamine	a neurotransmitter in the brain that plays a role in pleasure and the reward system; increases in the limbic system and later in the prefrontal cortex during adolescence
Dorothy McKibbin	Administrative Assistant in the Los Alamos Labs during the Manhattan Project. McKibbin was in charge of providing those working at Los Alamos with credentials and coordinated shipping and logistical issues.
double-blind	A research design in which neither the participants nor the researchers know whether an individual is assigned to the experimental group or the control group
Douglas MacArthur	A five star army general who lead the Pacific Theatre battles during U.S. World War II. After Japanese surrender, McArthur was named the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers and helped the Japanese rebuild their nation: economically and politically.
Dowry	Good and wealth given by the bride's family to the groom's family.
Dowry Death	When the groom's family tries get more dowry by abusing the wife. The practice can result in death or suicide.
dual process model/dual processing	the notion that two networks exist within the human brain, one for emotional processing of stimuli and one for analytic reasoning
dualism	absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking
Dwight D. Eisenhower	During World War II, Eisenhower led D-Day, the massive invasion of Nazi-occupied Europe. After the war, he ran for president and served two terms, during which time he managed Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union, ended the Korean War, created an Interstate Highway System, and strengthened(...)
dyslexia	a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities
E. Lee Francis	Born of mixed Laguna Pueblo, Scottish, and Lebanese heritage, Francis served as New Mexico's Lieutenant Governor between 1967 and 1971 during the administration of Governor David Cargo. Due to a constitutional stipulation that requires the Lieutenant Governor to take charge of affairs when the(...)
earspools	plugs worn in the ears; very common in the Americas; Hopewell ear spools were made from native copper
earthworks	term used to refer to mounds constructed from sediment; can take the form of embankments (linear mounds), enclosures, effigy mounds (in the shape of animals), conical (cone-like) mounds, and platform mounds. Hopewell and Mississippian Traditions constructed earthworks
ecofacts	organic and environmental remains resulting from human activity such as charcoal, pollen and animal bones (see Chapter 2)
ecological systems model	Brofenbrenner’s theory that we all belong to many communities and are influenced in the context of multiple environments, also known as ecological systems; organized into five levels of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem
ecological systems theory	Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory stressing the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments, organized into five levels of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem
Ecueracapa	"Leather Cape" in English, a Comanche leader who was instrumental in negotiating an alliance with the Spanish in the late 18th Century.
ED-XRF	stands for energy-dispersive x-ray fluorescence and is used to identify what an object is made of. X-rays are fired at an object's surface, affecting the inner shells atoms of the sample. Energy is emitted specific to each element.
Edgar Lee Hewett	American archaeologist and anthropologist, whose area of expertise was Native American Southwest peoples and art. Hewett is given credit for the formation of and preservation of ancient native cultures in Bandelier National Monument and Chaco Canyon
Editing	A step in the revision process that includes fixing typos and grammatical errors.
Edmund G. Ross	Ross served one time as governor of the New Mexico Territory. He voted against convicting President Andrew Johnson of "high crimes and misdemeanors" which allowed Johnson to stay in office, but he was subsequently impeached.
Edward R. Murrow	Prominent American broadcast journalist. During broadcasts in World War II, Murrow brought the war to American homes via the radio while on location at many combat sites. "Good Night, and Good Luck" was his signature sign off.
Edward Richard Sprigg Canby	When the Civil War began in 1861, Canby was promoted to the rank of Colonel of the 19th U.S. Infantry and given the post of commander over the Department of New Mexico. Despite a defeat at the Battle of Valverde, Canby's Union forces repelled the Confederate advance into New Mexico under(...)
Edward Teller	Known as "the father of the hydrogen bomb," Teller was an early member of the Manhattan Project team tasked to create the atomic bomb.
Edwin Johnson	A Governor of Colorado who was highly critical of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal policies
Edwin Vose Sumner	Sumner was a United States Army General who served in the U.S.-Mexican War. Fort Sumner, named after the general, was built to protect the settlers in the Pecos Valley from Native Americans.
effigy mounds	earthen mounds in the form of animals; the Hopewell Tradition created effigy mounds
Egalitarian	When people have roughly equal wealth and power
ego	The part of the self that helps balance the id and superego by satisfying the id’s desires in a rational way
egocentrism	The child is not able to take the perspective of others, typically observed during the preoperational stage
egocentrism	the tendency of young children to think that everyone sees things in the same way as the child
eight stages of psychosocial development	Erikson’s stages of trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair
El Paso del Norte	Today known as La Ciudad Juárez, or simply Juárez, it is a bi-national city on the US-Mexican border. Spanish colonizers took refuge here during the 1680 Pueblo Revolt.
El Teatro Norteño	Roberto Archuleta founded El Teatro Norteño, where members of El Partido de la Raza Unida could act in plays related to issues in New Mexico produced by Luis Valdez.
El Turco	The Turk, a prisoner of a Plains Indian tribe who told Coronado about the legend of Quivira, a city of infinite wealth.
Election of 1844	During the U.S. Presidential Election of 1844, westward expansion was the major campaign issue for Democrat James K. Polk and Whig Henry Clay. Polk championed expansion on all fronts, making his rallying cry “54° 40’ or fight!” Polk considered his electoral victory to be a mandate in support(...)
Electroencephalography	A technique that records the electrical activity produced by the brain’s neurons through the use of electrodes that are placed around the research participant’s head.
Elegy	An elegy is a lament for the dead and contains the character of sadness and loss. It is considered a public poem that when done best, according Mark Strand and Evan Boland, sets the customs of death in a particular culture against the decorum and private feelings of thespeaker.
Eleuterio Baca	Baca spoke and published poetry in the Spanish language. In the 1890s he was the associate editor of La Voz del Pueblo in Las Vegas, New Mexico.
Elfego Baca	Born in Socorro, NM on 1865 Elfego Baca was best known as a lawyer, politician and a gunman. At age 19 he became a sheriff peace officer.
Eliot Porter	Porter was a nature photographer and contemporary of Georgia O'Keeffe and Alfred Stieglitz.
Elisha Long	Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, New Mexico Territory 1885-1890.
elite	people with a disproportionate amount of wealth and power compared to the general populace
Ella Boyer	Wife of Francis Boyer, and an educator.
embryo	A multi-celled organism between two and eight weeks after fertilization
emerging adulthood	life stage extending from approximately ages 18 to 25, during which the foundation of an adult life is gradually constructed in love and work. Primary features include identity explorations, instability, focus on self-development, feeling incompletely adult, and a broad sense of possibilities
Emil Fritz	A German immigrant to the United States, Fritz served as a Captain with the California Column commanded by General Carleton in 1862. Following his efforts to secure New Mexico for the Union during the Civil War, he purchased land near Fort Stanton and went into business with Lawrence G.(...)
Emotional aggression	Aggression that occurs with only a small amount of forethought or intent and that is determined primarily by impulsive emotions.
emotional regulation	the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions, as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed
Emotional truth	A visceral, heartfelt connection that arises between reader and character or characters through the unfolding (and possibly the resolution) of an invented, narrated conflict, a connection so powerful that the reader perceives reality and truth in what is known to be pretend, known to be fiction.
Empathy	An affective response in which a person understands, and even feels, another person’s distress and experiences events the way the other person does.
Empirical	Based on the collection and systematic analysis of observable data.
empresarios	Meaning "entrepreneur" in English, empresarios were granted the right to settle on Mexican land in exchange for taking care of new settlers.
Enabling Act	A type of legislation which grants authorization of legitimacy to an entity; such as the establishment of government agencies to carry out specific policies.
encomenderos	The Spanish caretakers in the encomienda system, protecting native laborers under their care while giving them language and religious education in return for tributes in gold or other products.
encomienda	A grant by the Spanish Crown that gave a colonist in the Americas the right to demand tribute and used the Indian inhabitants of the area as forced labor.
Enculturation	The process of learning one's culture
End-rhyme	When two or more words that end lines rhyme.
End-stopped	A line of poetry that ends in punctuation.
endometriosis	a condition in which the layer of tissue that normally covers the inside of the uterus, grows outside of it
Enjambed	The running over of a sentence across multiple lines of poetry.
Enrico Fermi	Italian physicist who worked on the first nuclear reactor (Chicago Pile-1) and contributed to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermi is also one of the men considered as the "father of the atomic bomb." He excelled in both theoretical(...)
Enrique H. Salazar	Salazar was the founding editor of La Voz del Pueblo in Santa Fe in 1889. He subsequently edited El Independiente in Las Vegas. Throughout his publishing career he remained a vocal supporter of nuevomexicano rights within the United States.
Envoi	Also known as “tornada”: this is the final tercet of a sestina.
epigenetics	The study of heritable phenotype changes that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence; the prefix epi- means above
Estevan de Perea	Called "the father of the New Mexican Church," Perea served as a high-ranking missionary between 1610 and 1638, clashing with several governors and military officials, specifically filing reports of Governor Ceballos' child slave trading.
Esteban	Esteban was the first known African to have arrived on the continental United States. He was one of the four survivors of Narváez Expedition shipwreck that claimed more than 300 lives.
estrogen	primary female sex hormone that is responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics
et al.	“et al.” is short for “et alia,” which means “and other people” in Latin. In your paper, if you write Pauling et al. reported X findings, you are saying, Pauling and others reported X findings.
Ethnocentrism	Assuming your culture is superior or judging another culture based on your own worldview
Ethnography	Anthropological description of a culture.
ethology	The study of behavior through a biological lens
Ethos	Appeals to the credibility, reputation, and trustworthiness of the speaker or writer (most closely associated with the voice).
European Enlightenment	A cultural and intellectual movement in 17th Century Europe that highlighted reason and individualism over tradition and religion.
Eusebio Chacón	Chacón was an influential rico editor and political figure that lived in Las Vegas in the late nineteenth century. He used his position to advocate for the adoption of Spanish American Ethnic Identity among nuevomexicanos.
euthanasia	helping a person fulfill their wish to die
Evaluation	An assessment or judgment based on specific criteria
evaluation research	Research designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs
Evidence	It is factual information that helps the reader reach a conclusion and form an opinion about something. Evidence is given in research work or is quoted in essays and thesis statements but is paraphrased by the writer. If it is given as it is, then it is quoted properly within quotation marks.
Evolutionary adaptation	The assumption that human nature, including much of our social behavior, is determined largely by our evolutionary past.
evolutionary psychology	A field of study that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
evolutionary psychology	A field of psychology that focuses on how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time
Exchange relationships	Relationships in which each of the partners keeps track of his or her contributions to the partnership.
Exclusive submissions	A term used to refer to poems in the submission process that are under consideration by only one publisher exclusively.
exosystem	The larger contexts of the community, including the values, history, and economy
experimental archaeology	use of modern experimentation to gain insight into the past
Experimental confederate	A person who is actually part of the experimental team but who pretends to be another participant in the study.
experimental group	The group of participants in an experiment who receive the independent variable
experimental research	Research that involves randomly assigning people to different conditions and using hypothesis testing to make inferences about how these conditions affect behavior; the only method that measures cause and effect between variables
Experimental research designs	Research designs that include the manipulation of a given situation or experience for two or more groups of individuals who are initially created to be equivalent, followed by a measurement of the effect of that experience.
experiments	Designed to test hypotheses in a controlled setting in efforts to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes; the only research method that measures cause and effect relationships between variables
Explanations	Statements that reveal how the examples support and/or complicate a writer's statements.
explanatory studies	Research that tries to answer the question “why”
Expository Writing	Derived from the word "expose," expository writing seeks to expose, explain, describe, define, or inform.
Exquisite Corpse	This form, invented by the Surrealists, is fun to write in a group. Each person writes two lines, then folds the paper so the next person writing can see only the second line; the next person writes two more lines and folds the paper so that only the second line is visible; and so on.
Extended-contact hypothesis	The idea that prejudice can be reduced for people who have friends who are friends with members of the outgroup.
Extensive	Using a large area of land and relatively little labor
External validity	The extent to which relationships can be expected to hold up when they are tested again in different ways and for different people.
Fabiola Cabeza de Baca-Gilbert	Born to a family that traces its heritage back Álvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, Fabiola Cabeza de Baca-Gilbert grew up on a ranch on the Llano Estacado not far from Las Vegas. As a young woman, she taught in a rural school in Guadalupe County. Her teaching position made her realize how little(...)
Factorial research designs	Experimental designs that have two or more independent variables.
Facts	Evidence that cannot be disputed.
Facundo Melgares	Spanish military officer who served as the last Spanish Governor of New Mexico and the first Mexican Governor. During the Lewis and Clark expedition Melgares was tasked with keeping the Americans out of the the region in order to keep the territory under Mexican Governorship.
fading affect bias	idea that negative events, such as the death of a loved one, tend to lose their emotional intensity at a faster rate than pleasant events
failure to thrive	Decelerated or arrested physical growth (height and weight measurements fall below the third or fifth percentile or a downward change in growth across two major growth percentiles) and is associated with abnormal growth and development
Fajada Butte	natural formation at Chaco Canyon atop which lies the Sun Dagger
Fallacies	Errors in reasoning
False consciousness	The acceptance of one’s own low status as part of the proper and normal functioning of society.
False consensus bias	The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people are similar to us.
false self-training	holding a child to adult standards while denying the child’s developmental needs
Falsifiable	Being falsifiable means that the outcome of the research can demonstrate empirically either that there is support for the hypothesis (i.e., the relationship between the variables was correctly specified) or that there is actually no relationship between the variables or that the actual(...)
fast-mapping	a word-learning process in which new words are rapidly learned by making connections between new words and concepts already known
fast-mapping	a word learning process in which children are able to learn words quickly because they associate new words to words that they already know
faunal	refers to animal bone, as in "the faunal assemblage" consisted entirely of mammoth bone
features	non-portable objects modified or made by humans, such as hearths (fireplaces), pits, and ovens (see Chapter 2)
federalism	Federalism is a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority, or representative head, and constituent political units, such as states or provinces. The power to govern is shared between national and state governments based on(...)
federalists	Supporters of the Constitution who were committed to a loose, decentralized system of government.
Felipe Chávez	Son of a prominent nuevomexicano family, Chávez made a fortune on the Santa Fe Trade in the 1820s and 1830s. He established a mercantile in Belen and managed his families trade interests from there. Known widely as Don Felipe, he continued to profit from trade along the Santa Fe Trail well(...)
Felipe II	The king of Spain during the height of his imperial power his empire had colonies on every continent known to Europeans at the time.
Felix S. Cohen	A graduate of Columbia Law School, Cohen was a prominent lawyer who drafted the legislation that became known as the Indian New Deal. The Indian Reorganization Act was the key law that provided for self-determination for Native Americans by ending the period of assimilation policy. After the(...)
Female Circumcision	Also called female genital mutilation (FGM); part of a rite of passage in which part of female genitalia are removed or modified.
Feminine End	A line of poetry that ends with an unstressed beat.
Fernanda Martínez	Martínez was one of the Tierra Amarilla land grant heirs whose family had been advocating for the return of their communal resource rights on the tract long before the arrival of Reies López Tijerina. Along with Gregorita Aguilar, Martínez apprised Tijerina to the deep history of the land grant.
Fernando de Argüello	Between 1644 and 1647 he served as the thirteenth Spanish Governor of New Mexico. During his tenure, he ordered the public hanging of twenty-nine Jemez warriors in order to preempt a rumored rebellion against Spanish authority in preparation for which the Jemez people had reportedly enlisted(...)
Fernando VII	Fernando VII ruled a King of Spain twice, first in 1808 and again a second time from 1814-1833. He was cowardly, corrupt, and unfit to rule. Spain plunged into civil war after his reign.
Fertile Crescent	area of early domestication in the Near East
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders	A group of abnormalities in babies born to mothers who consume alcohol during pregnancy
fetus	An unborn human baby from nine weeks after conception until birth
Field experiments	Experiments conducted in everyday settings.
Figurative language	Words or phrases in which the meaning is not literal.
filibuster	A parliamentary procedure to delay or prevent a vote by extending a debate.
filles du roi	Also known as the King's Daughters, a contingent of 800 French women who were sent to New France between 1663 and 1673 to encourage men to populate and settle in those territories.
filter theory of mate selection	the pool of eligible partners becomes narrower as it passes through filters used to eliminate members of the pool
fine motor skills	Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. The word “fine” in this context means “small”
fine motor skills	precise movements of the wrists, hands, fingers, feet, or toes, such as the ability to reach and grasp an object
First Mesa	First Mesa, or Wàlpi, is a census-designated place in Navajo County, Arizona, on the Hopi Reservation where 1,100 people live (based on the 2000 Census).
First Peoples	The first Americans, hunter-gatherers who journeyed to the Americas from Asia via the Bering Strait Land Bridge (Beringia) some 12,000 years ago. Also referred to as Paleoindians
First person	A writing perspective that uses “I.”
Fitness	The extent to which having a given characteristic helps the individual organism to survive and to reproduce at a higher rate than do other members of the species who do not have the characteristic.
Fixed-sum outcomes	A gain for one side necessarily means a loss for the other side or sides.
Flash(ing) back	Used in a narrative to introduce a prior, related event in the story.
flintknapping	the process of making stone tools
fluid intelligence	the ability to recognize patterns and solve problems, irrespective of any past experience of the context in which these patterns or problems arise
folk Catholicism	Catholicism practiced by conquered peoples that has influence from native cultures.
food insecurity	limited or uncertain availability of safe, nutritious food
Foot	In metrical verse, lines can be divided into length and rhythm which we refer to as feet.Each foot is comprised of stressed and unstressed syllables.
foraging	Hunting and gathering; reliance on wild foods
foreclosure	term for premature identity formation, which occurs when an adolescent adopts his or her parents’ or society’s role and values without questioning or analysis, according to Marcia’s theory
Forensic Anthropology	Field that use anthropological techniques and concepts to help solve modern-day crime
Forest Guardians	Today called the WildEarth Guardians, the Forest Guardians were an environmental group that was founded in 1989. At its founding, the group's principal goal was to preserve the forest on Elk Mountain in New Mexico. Its members, however, did not understand the deep connections between(...)
forging	the shaping by hammering
formal operational stage	The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget’s theory and lasts from about age 11 to adulthood. Children in the formal operational stage can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations
formal operational thought	the fourth and final stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logical thinking and by the ability to understand and systematically manipulate abstract concepts
formation processes	the processes by which an archaeological site was formed; can also include the natural processes which act on a site after it is abandoned
Fort Sill	Located in Oklahoma, the fort was part of the frontier fort system to protect Texas from raids. In 1894, Geronimo and other Chiricahua Apache prisoners of war were taken to Fort Sill.
Fort Sumner	Near Bosque Redondo, Fort Sumner was used from 1863-1868 for Navajo and Mescalero Apache internment.
FOXP2	A gene known to influence human language.
Francis Boyer	Founder of Blackdom, New Mexico which is now a ghost town. Boyer established the town to provide African Americans a self-sustaining community free from the discrimination and violence of the Old South.
Franciscan order	Regular Catholic order whose members follow the teachings of Saint Francis of Assisi. They accompanied Hernán Cortés to central Mexico and later expanded their influence and power as the leading order in New Spain, including the Far North (today's New Mexico and U.S. Southwest).
Francisco Antonio Manzanares	Along with María Varela, Manzanares co-founded the Ganados del Valle Cooperative in the early 1980s to provide nuevomexicano sheep ranchers with the means of marketing their animals and wool products.
Francisco de Ayeta	A Spanish friar who warned the New Spanish government of possible Pueblo uprisings in the late 17th Century, although he was too late.
Francisco de la Mora y Ceballos	The military governor of New Mexico between 1632 and 1635 who issued permits authorizing colonizers to trade goods for native children.
Francisco Farfán	A Spanish friar who led a caravan of sixty-seven caravans from the Mexican mining town of Parral to settle in New Mexico following Diego de Vargas's successful reconquest.
Francisco I. Madero	In 1910, Madero challenged Mexican President Porfirio Díaz in that year's election. When it became apparent that Madero had garnered extensive support, Díaz ordered his imprisonment and manipulated the election. Once the falsified election was over, Madero fled to San Antonio, Texas, where he(...)
Francisco “Pancho” Villa	In March of 1916, General Villa, a prominent general and revolutionary in the Mexican Civil War (1910-1920), led a raid with nearly 100 Mexican revolutionaries into the United States at Columbus, New Mexico.
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado	A Spanish nobleman who led a large expedition into the American Southwest in search for the Cities of Gold, razing several Native American settlements along the way. His efforts eventually took him as far inland as Kansas, but yielded nothing.
Frank Applegate	One of the Anglos who joined the artist colonies in New Mexico in the early twentieth century, Frank Applegate gained notoriety for his paintings, such as "The Santuario de Chimayó."
Frank Springer	Attorney Frank Springer arrived in the New Mexico Territory in 1870 as the representative of the Dutch East India Company that had purchased sections of the Maxwell Land Grant from Thomas Catron. Once in New Mexico, Springer worked to oppose the power of the Santa Fe Ring over political and(...)
Franklin D. Roosevelt	Elected three times, Roosevelt was the 32nd U.S. President. Progressive leadership during the Great Depression through the "New Deal" brought about positive social change and economic security. He died in office and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman.
Franklin J. Tolby	Reverend Franklin Tolby was an open critic of the Santa Fe Ring in Cimarron, New Mexico. His murder in 1875 sparked the Colfax County War.
Franz Boas	Sometimes called the father of American anthropology, rejected unilineal evolution and the false distinction between “primitive” and “civilized” people.
Fraternal Polyandry	When brothers share a wife.
Fred Harvey	Known for the Harvey Girls, Harvey was a railroad restaurateur who operated fine dining establishments along the Santa Fe Topeka railroad lines.
Fred Peso	In his opposition to Wendell Chino's proposed nuclear waste program on Mescalero lands in the early 1990s, former vice president of the tribal council Fred Peso also employed the language of tribal self-determination. He argued that for the Mescalero people to remain free of mandates from the(...)
free radical theory of aging (FRTA)	theory that organisms age because cells accumulate free radical damage over time
Freewriting	Writing that comes out as a stream of thoughts unencumbered by grammar, spelling or a few of where it is heading.
French and Indian War	The North American extension of the Seven Year's War fought between France and Britain's colonial armies along with their respective Native American allies. A British victory redrew the map of North America and Europe heavily in Britain's favor.
fresco	mural painting created by applying paint to wet plaster
frontal lobes	the parts of the brain involved in impulse control, planning, and higher order thinking; still developing in adolescence
fueros	During the Spanish Colonial and Mexican periods, fueros were special rights and privileges granted to members of the clergy and the military. Such rights included exemption from civil taxation and from trial in civil courts.
function	how something was used (see Chapter 2)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging	A neuroimaging technique that uses a magnetic field to create images of brain structure and function.
Fundamental attribution error	To overestimate the role of person factors and overlook the impact of situations.
gamete	A male or female reproductive cell
gamete intrafallopian tube transfer	involves implanting both sperm and ova into the fallopian tube which allows fertilization to occur naturally
Ganado Mucho	One of the Navajo Chiefs who signed the U.S. Treaty with the Navajos in 1868 allowing the tribe to leave the Bosque Redondo.
Ganados del Valle	Ganados del Valle is an agricultural economic development nonprofit that utilized traditional cultural practices to develop small businesses that established marketing programs for local farmers, artists and craftspersons.
Gaspar Castaño de Sosa	Castaño de Sosa was a Spanish explorer and slaver who attempted to establish a settlement in New Mexico.
gender	a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female
gender	a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female
gender dysphoria	a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces “gender identity disorder”
gender expression	how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and interactions); can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum
gender identity	the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies; can be female, male, or genderqueer
gender identity	the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be woman, man, or genderqueer
gene-culture co-evolution	When a cultural practice affects human biology.
General George C. Marshall	A U.S. General during World War II, who was the architect of the Marshall Plan, which provided the Post WW II European nations with a plan for economic recovery.
generalized slowing hypothesis	the theory that processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, is less efficient
generativity	the ability to look beyond self-interest and motivate oneself to care for, and contribute to, the welfare of the next generation
Genes	Sequence of nucleotide bases that codes for a protein or molecule that performs a function in the body.
genes	Sequences of DNA that control or partially control a number of characteristics
genital stage	The final stage of psychosexual development when individuals develop sexual interests; begins in adolescence and lasts throughout adulthood
Genoa	A northern Italian coastal city that was one of the centers of the Renaissance, attracting many artists and traders. The city's prosperity led to its establishment of some of the oldest banking institutions in the world.
Genome	Set of genetic instructions for a species.
Genotype	The genetic makeup of an individual.
genotype	The genetic makeup of an individual
Genre	Categories used to describe types of writing such as fiction, non-fiction, poetry, and drama.
gente decente	Literally "decent people," gente decente were those who were considered the core of Spanish Colonial society in New Mexico. They typically used this title to distinguish themselves as civilized, as opposed to nomadic peoples in the surrounding areas
George B. Kistiakowsky	Kistiakowsky was one of the scientists involved in the Manhattan Project. Under his supervision the explosion lens for nuclear weaponry was created to compress plutonium necessary to achieve critical mass on implosion.
George Curry	Originally from Louisiana, George Curry served with Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders during the Spanish-Cuban-American War. Due to that association, Roosevelt appointed Curry as governor in 1907 after Governor Hagerman was mired in scandals.
George Long	A native of Alabama, Long met Albuquerque's Ernie Pyle during their World War II service in Okinawa. Pyle convinced Long to enroll in the University of New Mexico following the war. Although he originally planned to pursue a degree in Education, his activism to desegregate Albuquerque(...)
George McCall	Highly decorated union brigadier general during the Civil War, McCall also served under Zachary Taylor during the Mexican American War.
George McGovern	An American liberal Senator from South Dakota, and a staunch anti Vietnam war advocate, Senator McGovern lost the bid for the Presidency in 1972 to Richard Nixon. McGovern spent significant time serving for international humanitarian causes during and after his tenure as U.S. Senator.(...)
George McJunkin	Discoverer of the Folsom site in New Mexico
George Meade	Meade was a Civil War general know for his decisive Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg which was a pivotal point in the Union defeat of the Confederacy.
George N. Bascom	Following his graduation from West Point in 1858, Bascom was stationed at Camp Floyd in Utah and then at Fort Buchanan in southern Arizona. His unsuccessful and treacherous attempt to ambush Cochise in 1861 is remembered as the Bascom Affair. When the Civil War began, he was promoted to(...)
George W. Kendall	As a member of the Texas Santa Fe expedition, in 1841, Kendall and the unit were captured by the Mexican Army. He published many of his experiences in the New Orleans Picayune and documented the expedition in a 900 page book.
George Washington Armijo	During the Spanish-Cuban-American War, Armijo served with Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders. Following the conflict and with Roosevelt's support, Armijo served in several different positions in the territorial government. In 1911, Armijo initiated an annual De Vargas Pageant to coincide with(...)
Geronimo	Bedonkohe Apache leader of the Chiricahua Apache who led his people to defend their land against the United States military. After his family was killed by Mexican soldiers, Geronimo participated in raids in the Southwest, Sonora, and Chihuahua, until his final surrender in 1886. He then spent(...)
gerontocracy	a type of social structure wherein the power is held by a society’s oldest members
Gerontocratic	Society in which older males hold all the power.
Gerrymander	The act of manipulating the boundaries of an electoral constituency to favor a specific party.
Ghazal	Typically dealing with subjects of love and separation, the ghazal is a form with Arabic roots consisting of rhyming couplets of the same syllabic length and a refrain.
Ghost Marriage	System where a dead spouse is considered the biological parent of a child.
Gilded Age	A term coined by Mark Twain, the last few decades of the nineteenth century have come to be known as the Gilded Age because of the thin veneer of prosperity that masked a politically and economically corrupt society. The Gilded Age was a time of corporate excesses and income inequality in the(...)
glacial	a period marked by cold temperatures and glacial advances (see Chapter 3)
Glossary term	An alphabetical list of terms or words found in or relating to a specific subject, text, or dialect, with explanations; a brief dictionary.
glume	seat coat
Glycymeris	clam shells derived from the Gulf of California used to make Hohokam and Mogollon "armlets"
gonad	a sex organ that produces gametes; specifically, a testicle or ovary
gonadarche	refers to the earliest gonadal changes of puberty. In response to pituitary gonadotropins, the ovaries in girls and the testes in boys begin to grow and increase the production of the sex steroids, especially estradiol and testosterone
gonorrhea	a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by the bacterium neisseria gonorrhoeae
goodness-of-fit	the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children’s temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised
gorget	a decorative bar-like ornament worn at the throat; found in Hopewell and Mississippian contexts; often made from shell
Grammar	Structural rules of language.
Grant Chapel AME Church	Grant Chapel African Methodist Episcopal Church was the first black church in New Mexico.
Grass-In-Ear Behavior	Chimpanzee practice of placing a blade of grass in the ear, suggested to be a learned or cultural tradition
Grave Goods	Items intentionally placed in a burial.
grave goods	items associated with a burial
Great Hopewell Road	a road marked by two earthen berms between two major Hopewell centers, Newark and Cillecothe in Ohio; remnants of the road were discovered using early aerial photographs and LiDar
great house	large structures associated with Chaco Canyon
Great Moundbuilder Debate	debate over whether the Moundbuilders of North America were a "lost race" that disappeared or whether they were the ancestors of modern-day Native Americans; early excavations linked the Moundbuilders with modern tribes through examination of material culture
Great Northern Revolt	Due to the uprisings in New Mexico, the rebellious fervor also spread to the New Spanish northern frontier, igniting a series of raids by the nomadic people of northern Mexico.
Green Barry Patterson	Patterson was the Democratic delegate to the 1910 New Mexico Constitutional Convention from Chaves County. During the deliberations, he was offended by a comment made by Albert Fall and he subsequently stormed out of the convention. When the final version of the Constitution was completed,(...)
Gregorita Aguilar	Longtime member of "La Corporación de Abiquiú," Gregorita Aguilar apprised Reis López Tijerina of the historical roots of the struggle over the Tierra Amarilla Land Grant.
grief	the psychological, physical, and emotional experience and reaction to loss
Grito de Dolores	Translated as "the cry of Dolores," the Grito marked the beginning of Father Hidalgo's independence movement in 1810. His parishioners, most of whom were of indigenous background, rallied behind banners of la Virgin de Guadalupe and called for an end to bad government and "death to the gachupines!"
gross motor skills	Physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping. The word “gross” in this context means “big”
gross motor skills	voluntary movements including the use of large muscle groups such as the arms and legs
Group polarization	Is said to occur when, after discussion, the attitudes held by the individual group members become more extreme than they were before the group began discussing the topic.
Group process	The events that occur while the group is working together on the task.
Groupthink	Occurs when a group that is made up of members who may actually be very competent and thus quite capable of making excellent decisions nevertheless ends up making a poor one as a result of a flawed group process and strong conformity pressures.
Guadalcanal	A principal island in the Solomon Islands which was used as the first major offensive by Allied forces against Japan during World War II. Guadalcanal, Florida, and Tulagi were taken by Allied forces and Japan retaliated with three major land battles, seven large naval battles, and daily aerial(...)
Guadalupe Miranda	As a proponent of Land Grant rights for Mexicans in Texas and New Mexico, Miranda fought for Hispanic Mexicans living in the U.S. Territory who wanted to remain Mexican citizens.
Guanahaní	An island in the Bahamas that was the first the first New World land sighted and visited by Christopher Columbus in 1492. He called it San Salvador.
Haab	Maya civil calendar of 365 days
habitation site	a site where people lived, in contrast to a kill site or ritual center
Haiku	This well-known Japanese form is three lines long and comprised of unrhymed, unmetered lines with a 5 7 5 syllable count. Traditionally, the haiku’s subject matter relates to nature or seasons.
Hanging Indent	A formatting style for citations in both MLA and APA reference pages in which every line except the first is a half-inch away from the left margin.
Hans Bethe	German and American physicist whose research on critical mass of nuclear weapons and theories of implosion which led to the development of the Trinity test bomb and the "Fat Boy" atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki Japan in 1945.
Harm-based morality	That harming others, either physically or by violating their rights, is wrong
Harold Ickes	U.S. Secretary of the Interior under Franklin Roosevelt, Ickes is credited with implementing many of the initiatives of Roosevelt's "New Deal."
harquebus	The "hook gun," an early muzzle-loaded firearm used by Spanish conquistadores in the New World. It was the predecessor of the musket and other modern rifles.
Harry S. Truman	Truman served as the 33rd U.S. President and is largely remembered for bringing an end to World War II with Japan's surrender. He ended the war by dropping the atomic bomb on two Japanese cities. He is also known for his "the buck stops here" leadership attitude.
Harvesting dilemma	A case in which a social dilemma leads people to overuse an existing public good.
Harvey Girls	Female wait staff for Fred Harvey Restaurants, known for impeccable dress, manner and morals.
Hawikuh	One of the largest Zuni pueblos during the time of Spanish colonization. It was also the first pueblo to be conquered by the Spanish during Coronado's expedition.
Hawthorne effect	Individuals tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched
Hayflick limit	the number of times a normal human cell population will divide before cell division stops
Heinrich von Eckhardt	Received the Zimmerman Telegram in 1917 during his time as Resident Minister for the German Empire in Mexico.
Henry Connelly	Much like other Anglo Americans of his day, not long after he moved to Mexico in 1828 he married a woman from Chihuahua and started a family there. Those types of connections helped him to understand the region and its people. In the early 1840s he relocated his family to Peralta, less that(...)
Henry Hopkins Sibley	Sibley was a Brigadier General for the Confederacy. Sibley lead the Confederate States Army in the New Mexico territory and lost the Battle of Glorieta to General Scurry.
Henry Lane Wilson	Appointed by President Taft as U.S. Ambassador to Mexico during the Mexican Revolution, Wilson was allegedly involved in a coup d'etat of the Mexican government in 1913.
Henry the Navigator	The father of Portuguese exploration, Henry was largely responsible for expanding Portuguese knowledge of the Atlantic and Africa through systematic exploration.
Herbert Eugene Bolton	Bolton is considered as the father of the field of Borderlands History. His work in the 1920s and 1930s drew attention to the history of Spanish colonialism in the U.S. Southwest. Although his perspective was generally limited to a celebratory look at the efforts of Spanish explorers, priests,(...)
Herbert J. Hagerman	17th Governor of the New Mexico Territory (1906-07) and Commissioner to the Navajos under the Department of Interior.
Herbert Wright	Wright is a former Civil Rights Activist and active NAACP member, noted for his 1960 debate with Malcolm X at Yale Law School.
Hernán Cortés	A Spanish conquistador widely known for his exploits in Mexico, toppling the Aztec Empire and bringing much of the region under Spanish rule.
heterogamy	marriage between people who do not share social characteristics
heterozygous	A combination of alleles for a given gene
Heuristics	Discovery procedures that help a writer explore their ideas; for example, the Pentad.
Hexameter	A six-foot line. Also called Alexandrine when purely iambic.
hidalgo	A member of the Spanish nobility. They were typically exempt from paying taxes but owned little property. The term is used to describe a member of the non-hereditary elite because it comes from the phrase "hijo de algo," which means "son of something."
hidden curriculum	cultural values, concepts, behaviors and roles that are part of the school experience but are not part of the formal curriculum
Hindsight bias	The tendency to think that we could have predicted something that we probably would not have been able to predict.
Hispaniola	Caribbean Island that contains modern day Dominican Republic and Haiti, also the site of Columbus's first invasion of the New World.
hogan	Traditional Navajo dwelling usually constructed out of natural material, circular in shape, and with an always eastward facing door towards the rising sun.
Hohokam	The Hohokam migrated north out of Mexico into the Southwest, where they became the most skillful irrigation farmers of the region.
Holistic	An approach in anthropology that considers many different aspects of humanity instead of focusing on a single feature
holistic	emphasizing the importance of the whole. Anthropologists are interested in all aspects of humanity, and thus take a holistic approach to the study of people (see Chapter 1)
Holocene	The Earth's current geological epoch that began roughly 11,000 years ago, marked by the spread of human activity across the planet.
Holocene	A period of time called an epoch that began after the end of the Pleistocene about 11,700 years ago
holophrase	a single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought
home state	occurs when parents or siblings visit the school. Children in this state may enjoy special privileges such as going home early or being exempt from certain school rules in the mother’s presence, or it can be difficult if the parent is there to discuss trouble at school with a staff member
homogamy	marriage between people who share social characteristics
homophily	a tendency of individuals to form links disproportionately with others like themselves
homozygous	Having two copies of the same allele for a given gene
Hoover Dam	Constructed during the U.S. Depression of the 1930's, Hoover Dam, on the Colorado River in Nevada/Arizona, was designed to withhold flood, provide irrigation and produce hydroelectric power for the desert southwest.
Hopewell Tradition	refers to a large network of trade an exchange with a similar belief system; located in what is now the eastern United States; (ca. 100 BC-AD 500)
Hopi House	A sandstone structure located on the South Rim of the Grand Canyon designed by architect Mary Coulter. The building was home for Hopi artisans and craftspeople to market their ware.
Horticulture	Gardening using mostly human power and simple tools
hospice	a type of care involving palliation without curative intent. Usually, it is used for people with no further options for curing their disease or people who have decided not to pursue further options that are arduous, likely to cause more symptoms, and not likely to succeed
huaca	in Quechua, a native language of South America, a revered monument or object; can be natural or cultural
Huaca del Sol	adobe brick monument at the Cerro Blanco Moche site, Peru
Hubert Howe Bancroft	Hubert Howe Bancroft was an American historian and ethnologist who wrote works concerning the western United States, Texas, California, Alaska, Mexico, Central America, and British Columbia.
Hugh McLeod	McLeod was a soldier and member of legislature in the Republic of Texas. He also commanded the military during the Texas Santa Fe Expedition in 1841.
Human Genome Project	An international projects that mapped out the human genome.
Human Genome Project	International project that mapped out the human genome, the full set of nucleoltide base pairs. The project was completed in 2000.
human remains	human bones, teeth and other tissues (see Chapter 2)
human sacrifice	Ritual practices conducted in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. The Aztecs often sacrificed prisoners of war from neighboring tribes as offerings to the gods.
humanism	A psychological theory that emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive towards self-actualization and contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their own behavior
Humanities	Disciplines interested in explanations about particular human societies often through description and critique
Humphries Wildlife Management Area	Established by the New Mexico Game Commission, and managed by the Department of Game and Fish. The area is a consolidation of five tracts of land in north central New Mexico around Tierra Amarilla and provides wildlife habitat for elk, deer, black bears, and other wildlife.
hunter-gatherers	people that live off wild, non-domesticated food; also called foragers (see Chapter 3)
Hunting and Gathering	Foraging; reliance on wild foods
Hunting Magic	Attempting to increase animal numbers or aid in the hunt using magic.
hunting magic	idea that representations of animals can magically increase animal populations or assist in hunting them
hyper-diffusionism	relying on diffusionist ideas (spreading out from a single locus) on a grand scale
Hyperbole	An exaggerated statement.
hypertension	high blood pressure that can lead to severe complications and increases the risk of heart disease, stroke, and death
hypotheses	Specific statements or predictions about the relationship between variables
hypothesis	A testable prediction
hypothetical thought	reasoning that includes propositions and possibilities that may not reflect reality
Iamb	˘ ΄ A light stress followed by a heavy stress.
Ian Hodder	known for his post-processualist approach, is the lead archaeologist at the site of Çatalhöyük in Turkey
Iberian Peninsula	Europe's third largest peninsula located in the continent's southwest, dominated by Spain and Portugal, and previously occupied by the Romans, Goths, and Islamic Empire.
Iceman	Europe's earliest natural mummy; found in the Tyrolean Alps of Italy (see Chapter 2)
id	The part of the self that is biologically-driven, includes our instincts and drives, and wants immediate gratification
identity	the understanding that objects have an identity or qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some way
identity achievement	Erikson’s term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans; already questioned and made commitment according to Marcia’s theory
identity vs. role confusion	Erikson’s term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out “Who am I?” but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt
Ideology	Ideas about how people should think and behave.
ideology	belief system or world view
Ignacio Orrantía	Orrantía was a U.S. Deputy Marshal for Doña Ana County in the 1860s. Following the electoral violence in Mesilla in 1871, with Fabián Gonzales he led a group of ninety-six families to settle La Ascensión, Chihuahua.
Image	A mental picture, what we see with the mind’s eye.
Imagery	A description that appeals to one of the five senses.
imaginary audience	the other people who, in an adolescent’s egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of his or her appearance, ideas, and behavior. This belief makes many adolescents very self-conscious
Imagism	A 20th century movement in poetry advocating free verse and the expression of ideas and emotions through clear precise images
immunization	A process that stimulates the body’s immune system by causing the production of antibodies to defend against attack by a specific contagious disease
imprinting	In psychology and ethology, imprinting is any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior
Impure line	A line in a poem that breaks from an established pattern altogether.
in situ	means in place (see Chapter 2)
in vitro fertilization	this procedure involves removing eggs from the female, fertilizing the eggs outside the woman’s body, and then reinserting into the woman’s uterus
Indeh	The Apache word for their own people.
independent invention	when technological innovations happen independently in different regions; contrast with diffusion, where traits spread from one region to another
Independent variable	The situation that is created by the experimenter through the experimental manipulations.
independent variable	Something that is manipulated or introduced by the researcher to the experimental group; treatment or intervention
Indian Reorganization Act	The Wheeler-Howard Act, or Indian Reorganization Act, of 1934 was the key legislation that created the Indian New Deal. Most significantly, the act reversed federal policies of assimilation and allowed for tribal self-determination.
indios bárbaros	The Spanish labeled tribes like the Apaches, Utes, and Navajos as "Barbaric Indians" due to their nomadic/semi-nomadic lifestyle, non-Christian beliefs, and often hostility towards the Spanish.
indios de rescate	"Rescued" Native Americans subjected to fifteen or twenty years of service to their "liberators." The Spanish justified this claiming they were doing the natives a favor by "freeing" them from captivity and educating them in "civilized" culture and Christian teachings.
Individualism	Cultural norms, common in Western societies, that focus primarily on self-enhancement and independence.
Inductive Reasoning	The consideration of a number of results and forming a generalization based on those results.
Industrialized Food Production	Reliance on huge farms, single crops, chemical inputs (fertilizer/pestisides), large scale production of meat
infantile marasmus	Starvation due to a lack of calories and protein
infantile or childhood amnesia	the idea that people forget everything that happened to them before the age of 3
information-processing approach	An alternative to Piagetian approaches, a model that seeks to identify the ways individual take in, use, and store information
information-processing perspective	derives from the study of artificial intelligence and explains cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the overall process of thinking
Informational conformity	The change in opinions or behavior that occurs when we conform to people whom we believe have accurate information.
Informational report	Informs or instructs and presents details of events, activities, individuals, or conditions without analysis.
informed consent	A process of informing a research participant what to expect during a study, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s agreement to participate
Ingroup	Those whom we view as being similar and important to us and with whom we share close social connections.
Ingroup favoritism	The tendency to respond more positively to people from our ingroups than we do to people from outgroups.
Government Initiative	A procedure used in the government in which voters propose a new measure of legislation.
Inn of the Mountain Gods	A premier mountain resort in the mountains of Mescalero, New Mexico, outside of Ruidoso.
insecure-avoidant attachment (type A)	a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or even return
insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment (type C)	a pattern of attachment in which an infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)	A panel of experts who review research proposals for any research to be conducted in association with the institution (for example, a university)
Instrumental aggression	Aggression that is intentional and planned.
Insufficient justification	When the social situation actually causes our behavior, but we do not realize that the social situation was the cause.
Insulting The Meat	Kalahari forager tradition of calling the meat worthless to keep the hunter humble
Integrative outcomes	A solution can be found that benefits all the parties.
integrity	Erikson refers to this as reflecting on one’s life and experiencing a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment
Intensive	Using a small area of land with increased labor or technology inputs
Intensive Agriculture	Farming with the use of animal labor, plow, fertilizers, irrigation or terracing
inter-glacial	warming trend between glacial periods during the Pleistocene (see Chapter 3)
Interdependent	People relying to a great degree on each other to meet their goals.
Internal rhyme	Lines of poetry in which words in the middle of a line rhyme with words at the end of other lines.
Internal validity	The confidence with which we can draw conclusions about the causal relationship between the variables.
Interpersonal attraction	The strength of our liking or loving for another person.
intramural	inside of a structure/building
Introduction	Frames a writer's paper by introducing the issue at hand, establishes the writer's position, and identifies the writer's scope of coverage.
introjection	a process Freud described where children incorporate values from others into their value set
intuitive thought	thoughts that arise from an emotion or a hunch, beyond rational explanation, and are influenced by past experiences and cultural assumptions
invincibility fable	an adolescent’s egocentric conviction that he or she cannot be overcome or even harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving
irreversibility	when a person is unable to mentally reverse a sequence of events
Isaac Lynde	At the first Battle of Mesilla, during the U.S. Civil War, Lynde was the recipient of information from a Confederate deserter about a surprise attack from the Confederates.
Issue dialogue	Creation dialogue about a topic during the early analysis stage that focuses on the most extreme positions then moving towards more reasonable compromises.
Italian quatrain	A poem consisting of four lines written in iambic pentameter and rhyme A B B A.
Italian Renaissance	A period of cultural and scientific revival in Italy starting in the 14th Century, led to the eventual European Renaissance.
J. Edgar Hoover	Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI). Under his directorship, the FBI became an autonomous federal agency that willingly participated in illegal investigation methods.
J. Robert Oppenheimer	One of the team of physicists who were tasked by President Franklin Roosevelt to being the nuclear program in the U.S. during W.W. II. The team worked on the Manhattan Project, in Los Alamos, New Mexico which eventually developed the first nuclear bomb. The bomb was initially tested at the(...)
Jacob C. Morgan	Morgan gained prominence among the Navajo people for his efforts to resist John Collier's livestock reduction program during the Indian New Deal. To undermine Collier's efforts, Morgan enlisted the help of Senator Dennis Chávez.
James Buchanan	Buchanan served as the 15th U.S. President. Historians suggest that Buchanan was responsible for American Civil War by not addressing the southern state succession from the Union.
James Gadsden	Despite the decision of the binational Boundary Commision, in 1853 Mexian officials forced Americans off of their lands in the disputed Mesilla Valley. As a result, New Mexico governor William Lane declared the area to be part of the United States; Mexican President Santa Anna responded by(...)
James H. Carleton	General James H. Carleton arrived in New Mexico in 1861 at the head of the California Column. He succeeded Colonel Canby as commander of the Department of New Mexico. In that capacity, he targeted the Mescalero Apache and Navajo people for forced relocation to the ill-planned Bosque Redondo.
James J. Dolan	Union Army veteran James J. Dolan built a commercial enterprise, L. G. Murphy & Co., with Emil Fritz and Lawerence G. Murphy.
James K. Polk	Polk served as U.S. President during the U.S.-Mexican War. By the end of his four year presidency, he had added 1.2 million acres of land to the United States.
James Magoffin	Magoffin was a successful American merchant in Coahuila and Chihuahua in the 1830s. He had married into a prominent northern Mexican family, providing him with important connections to powerful people in the region. In the early 1840s he relocated his business to Missouri and continued to(...)
James Peter Davis	James Peter Davis served as Archbishop of Santa Fe from 1964-1974 after being appointed by Pope Paul VI.
Jean Baptiste Lamy	As the first bishop and archbishop of the Diocese of Santa Fe, Lamy's tenure was filled with conflict with the local parish priests and parishioners specifically Taos priest Father Antonio José Martínez. The initial conflict resulted when Lamy reinstated tithing for parishioners, something(...)
Jean L'Archevêque	French trader, soldier, and explorer who was one of the two survivors of the ill-fated French colony of Fort Saint Louis in Texas.
Jesse Jackson	Jackson was an American Civil Rights leader, and one time associate of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Reverend Jackson organized grassroots movements, such as Operation PUSH and the Rainbow Coalition.
Jesuasa Alfau	Alfau was a cartoonist from Madrid who created patriotic pieces in support of U.S. involvement in World War I. Her work played a role in rehabilitating the image of Spain among Americans.
Jesús María Hilario Alarid	Alarid (1834-1917) was a well-known bardo, or people's poet, and teacher who lived in the village of Galisteo. As a notable bardo, he published regularly in New Mexico's Spanish-language press during the territorial period.
Jesús Tafoya	Tafoya issued a declaration throughout Rio Arriba that called nuevomexicanos to arms against the U.S. occupation under Colonel Sterling Price in January of 1847. Price learned of the insurrection and led 353 men northward to combat Tafoya's forces at the Battle of La Cañada. Tafoya was killed(...)
Jesusita Perrault	Jesusita Perrault was born in Chihuahua in 1888. When she was young, her family moved to Silver City, New Mexico. After attending the Silver City Normal School and becoming a teacher, she also became involved in Grant County politics. Between 1921 and 1923 she served as county assessor. In(...)
Jigsaw classroom	An approach to learning in which students from different racial or ethnic groups work together, in an interdependent way, to master material.
Jim Crow Discrimination	A system of segregation and discrimination, which lasted until the mid 20th Century, which barred African Americans from the same civil rights and freedoms as white Americans.
jizya	A tax levied on the Islamic Empire's non-Islamic subjects, particularly adult men of military age. The purpose was for the subjects to show their acceptance of their Islamic rulers. In return, they were allowed to practice their faiths and retain communal autonomy.
Joaquín Terrazas	Joaqín Terrazas was a well-known Apache fighter in Chihuahua in the mid-to-late nineteenth century. His cousin, Governor Luis Terrazas, called him out of retirement to lead the effort to subdue Victorio's band in 1879 and 1880.
Joe S. Sando	Sando is an accomplished Pueblo historian and author and former director of Institute for Pueblo Indian Studies in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
John and William Slaughter	The Slaughter Brothers were Texas cattlemen who ranched the West from Utah, to New Mexico, and Texas.
John C. Frémont	As an explorer with the U.S. Topographical Engineers, Frémont traveled west on a mapping expedition to the border of Mexico and California in 1846. He discovered many californios who wanted California, or the Bear Flag Republic, to join the United States. Frémont declared himself a commander(...)
John Collier	John Collier was one of the "romantic reformers" drawn to New Mexico in the 1920s by the perception that its people practiced pre-modern lifeways. He was enthralled with the people of Taos Pueblo, and their economic and political situation inspired him to advocate for Native American(...)
John Frere	Frere realized, based on excavations at Suffolk, England, that archaeological remains were older than previously thought, beyond early Biblical estimates (see Chapter 1)
John H. Tunstall	British born rancher and merchant, Tunstall lived in Lincoln County, New Mexico. His murder ignited the Lincoln County War, a war to win the dry goods trade in the county. Billy the Kid also participated in this New Mexico range war.
John J. “Black Jack” Pershing	General Pershing led the Punitive Expedition into Chihuahua in 1916 and 1917 in search of Pancho Villa following his raid on Columbus. Although the expedition failed to capture Villa, the experience offered a means for the U.S. Military to prepare for its subsequent involvement in World War I(...)
John M. Chivington	Chivingon led Colorado Volunteers to support Union forces at the Battle of Glorieta Pass in late March of 1862. With Lieutenant Major Manuel Chávez as his guide, Chivington's forces captured the Confederate supply train and forced the Confederate soldiers into retreat. On November 29, 1864,(...)
John M. Washington	In 1848 as Military Governor of New Mexico, Washington was tasked with settling the war between the Navajo people and the United States.
John Munroe	Military Governor of New Mexico Territory 1849- 1851. Historians define his tenure as unprincipled and out of touch with the realities of the western frontier.
John Nance Garner	A vice president serving under Franklin Roosevelt, Garner was politically opposed to Roosevelt's New Deal efforts and resigned the position in 1941.
John P. Slough	Slough was a Union Colonel who lead the Union in the Battle of Glorieta Pass in which the Union soldiers defeated the Confederacy. Slough later became an Army Brigadier General who served as a chief justice in the Territory of New Mexico. He was assassinated by a member of the territorial(...)
John Russell Bartlett	After the Treaty of Guadalupe, in which Mexico ceded to Texas, Arizona, and California to the U.S., Bartlett was appointed U.S Boundary Commissioner in charge of documenting the boundaries. As it happened, Bartlett incorrectly marked the boundaries of New Mexico and Texas, which resulted in(...)
John Slidell	Slidell was a United States agent to Mexico, before the U.S.-Mexican War, who was tasked to negotiate and establish the Rio Grande River as the boundary between Mexico and the Territory of New Mexico. Failed negotiations partially led to the U.S.-Mexican War.
John Talberth	Talberth was the leader of the Forest Guardians, an environmental group located in Santa Fe. The mission of the group was to protect the Northern New Mexico forests from over-logging and destruction.
John Tyler	Tyler served as the tenth U.S. President and signed legislation to annex Texas into the union.
Jointure	The designation of property, held by one spouse (historically the husband) and jointly used by both spouses, to be provided to the other spouse (historically the wife) in the event of the death of the spouse holding the property.
Jornada del Muerto	Dead Man's Journey: a 90-mile passage across an arid desert east of the Rio Grande between present-day Rincon and San Marcial. Travelers going to Santa Fe from Mexico used it as a shortcut, but it lacked water or grazing pasture.
José Antonio Navarro	Leading Mexican politician to favor Texas Independance and Texas Statehood. He served as a Texas State legislator to represent the rights of the Tejanos after Texas Independence.
José Aragón	One of the most prolific and influential santeros during the time of New Mexico's religious revival during the 18th and 19th centuries.
José D. Sena	Clerk of the Supreme Court and State Delegate during New Mexico's bid for Statehood.
José de Gálvez	A lawyer and Spanish colonial official who was one of the leading proponents behind the Bourbon Reforms. Was also an inspection officer for the frontier defenses in northern New Spain.
José Francisco Chaves	The election contest between Republican José Francisco Chaves and Democrat José Manuel Gallegos sparked the 1871 riot in Mesilla that left nine people dead. Gallegos ultimately won the election to become the New Mexico Delegate to Congress, and many of the Republican supporters of Chaves(...)
José Inez Salazar	Mexican Revolutionary General José Inez Salazar was imprisoned in Albuquerque for a violation of U.S. neutrality laws when he crossed the border to escape a villista assault during the Battle of Ojinaga in 1914. Elfego Baca served as he lawyer and was implicated for aiding Salazar's escape(...)
José Jesús Baca	José de Jesús Cabeza de Baca is known as a schism in the New Mexican Catholic Church. In 1819 he was baptized into the Church and in 1853 Baca had signed some sacramental entries in the books at San Albino. By 1854 Baca had taken over the ministry at San Albino Catholic Church.
José Joaquín de Herrera	Elected as president of the Republic of Mexico after Santa Ana was exiled to Cuba. Herrera was a more moderate political voice than the militarists. At the onset of the Mexican American War Herrera attempted to negotiate with the U.S. Perceived as weak, he was ousted in a military coup.
José Manuel Gallegos	New Mexico Territory delegate to the U.S. Congress.
José María Maytorena	Governor of Sonora during the Mexican Revolution, his allegiances to national revolutionary leaders constantly shifted.
José María Morelos	Catholic priest who joined Miguel Hidalgo's 1810 insurrection. Morelos later became the leader of the Mexican Independence Movement and declared Mexico as independent in 1815.
Josefa Jaramillo	One of prominent Taos resident Francisco Esteban Jaramillo, at the age of 14 Josefa married Kit Carson. In order to gain her father's trust, Carson converted to Catholicism. Together, the couple had eight children. She died of complications after giving birth to her eighth child in late April(...)
Joseph Geronimo	A grandson of the legendary Chiricahua headman Geronimo, Joseph Geronimo led the opposition to Wendell Chino's proposal to bring nuclear waste to Mescalero lands in the early 1990s.
Joseph Rodman West	West was a U.S. Senator from Louisiana, a Civil War general, and he commanded the army which killed Apache Chief Mangas Coloradas at Fort McLane in southwest New Mexico.
Joseph Stalin	Stalin was a Russian dictator who transformed the USSR, through violence and terror, from an agrarian/peasant society to a military and industrial powerhouse.
Josiah Gregg	Gregg was a nineteenth century merchant and explorer who was involved with the Santa Fe Trade. HIs book, "Commerce of the Prairies," is an important primary source that tells the story of the social, political, and economic impacts of the trade. As with so many other primary sources, Gregg's(...)
Juan Andrés Archuleta	Archuleta built a military career in New Mexico between 1820 and 1850 by leading campaigns against Ute and Navajo people, as well as by organizing militias to defend outlying settlements like Abiquiú. He also played an instrumental role in the capture of the members of the Texan-Santa Fe(...)
Juan Bautista de Anza	The governor of New Mexico between 1778 and 1788, tasked with building an alliance with the Comanche Indians. In 1779, he succeeded in establishing peace with the Comanches; in 1786 the peace arrangement was also extended to Navajo and Ute tribes.
Juan Bautista Vigil	Vigil was the last Mexican Governor of the New Mexico after the defeat of the Mexican Army to the United States. In 1846, possession of New Mexico was turned over the the United States.
Juan Cuna	A Hopi Indian found in possession of a Kachina doll and accused of idol worshipping, punished by heavy beatings.
Juan de Eulate	A Spanish soldier who served with distinction and eventually became the 4th governor of New Mexico. During his time in office, he led military campaigns against the Apache tribes and took many members into slavery.
Juan de Oñate	A Spanish explorer who led multiple expeditions into the Colorado Valley and Great Plains, also ruled as governor of the Santa Fe de Nuevo México Province. He put down the Acoma Revolt in 1598.
Juan de Ulibarrí	Ulibarrí was one of Albuquerque's founders who later claimed the territory of Colorado for the Spanish crown.
Juan de Zaldívar	Zaldívar was Juan de Oñate's nephew. After his death at Acoma Pueblo, his killing escalated to the Acoma Massacre.
Juan de Zumárraga	The first bishop of Mexico who championed for the welfare of the natives.
Juan José Herrera	Late 19th century union organizer for the Knights of Labor near San Miguel County, New Mexico and one of the founders of Las Gorras Blancas "The White Caps". Herrera supported indigenous groups, by being a voice for the poor and underrepresented Spanish speaking New Mexicans.
Juan José Peña	One of the most prolific and influential santeros during the time of New Mexico's religious revival during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Juan Pio	Pio was a priest of Tesuque Pueblo in the 17th century. His murder by the people of Tesuque sparked the Pueblo Revolt.
Judgments	Conclusions drawn from the given facts; they are more credible than options
Juh	Juh (pronounced "whoa") was the leader of the Janeros local group of the Nednhi, and he collaborated with Mangas Coloradas and Cochise in many wars against the U.S. Army. Following the execution of Mangas Coloradas, he led his band to their traditional home in the Blue Mountains of Chihuahua's(...)
Julius C. Burrows	A U.S. Senator from Michigan, who is cited as being the person responsible for New Mexico's long path to statehood.
just wars	The theory where wars can be morally justified if they meet certain criteria, such as preventing atrocities that would otherwise happen in the absence of war. For the Spanish, moral justification came from the Catholic Church.
kachina	Spirit beings in western Pueblo religious beliefs that represent natural and social phenomenons like rain, harvest, and medicine. Also spelled katsinas or catsinas.
Kanzi	A bonbo chimpanzee taught to communicate using lexigrams.
Katauta	A three-line poem with the syllable count 5 7 7, the first line posing a question that the next two lines attempt to answer in an intuitive, immediate way.
katsina	Puebloan ancestor spirit
Kaytennae	Kaytennae was a Chiricahua Apache who joined with Victorio's band during campaign to remain free of reservation life in 1879 and 1880. One of those who escaped the battle at Tres Castillos, Kaytennae later married Gouyen, known among the Chiricahua for her wisdom. In the early 1880s Kaytennae(...)
Kearny Code	The laws of the Territory of New Mexico, set forth by Brigadier General Stephen Kearny, outlining the principle of freedom and liberty for the citizens of the territory.
Kenneth Bainbridge	Kenneth Bainbridge was an American physicist at Harvard University. He was the director of the Manhattan Project's Trinity nuclear test in 1945. After the test he dedicated his career to ending the testing of nuclear weapons and to efforts to maintain civilian control of future .developments(...)
Kennewick Man	skeleton radiocarbon dated to 9,600 B.P. in Washington state; is the center of a long-standing NAGPRA controversy
Keresan	A group of languages spoken by the Keres pueblo people of New Mexico containing a wide variety of dialects that are often discerned as different languages.
Keyword	A word which occurs in a text more often than we would expect to occur by chance alone.
Kim Agnew	Daughter of Vice President Spiro Agnew, Kim rode horses in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains with a group of Pueblo people to promote the return of Blue Lake to the people of Taos Pueblo.
Kin selection	Strategies that favor the reproductive success of one’s relatives, sometimes even at a cost to the individual’s own survival.
kinkeeping	“emotion work”, often undertaken by women, to foster and maintain family relationships
Kiowa	A nomadic Native American tribe of the Plains.
Kirtland Air Force Base	Located in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Kirtland Base played a role in training pilots and bombardiers during World War II. Kirtland also served as the airbase to provide Manhattan Project personnel with needed supplies and materials to build the atomic bomb.
kiva	semi-subterranean (partially underground) ceremonial structure of the American Southwest
Klaus Fuchs	German physicist Klaus Fuchs joined the Communist Party of Germany but fled to England when Nazis took control on Germany in 1933. Professor Max Born of Edinburgh University helped get Fuchs out of an internment camp in Quebec. In 1943, Fuchs was sent to the U.S. to collaborate on the(...)
Knights of Labor	Established as a secret union in 1869, the Knights accepted members for the union regardless of occupation, sex, or ethnic background. During the Haymarket Riots in Chicago, the Knights participated in the strikes, much to the dismay of their organizer Terence V. Powderl.
Koko	A western lowland gorilla that was taught to use some signs in American Sign Language.
Kuaua	Kuaua is a historic site open to the public to view. Currently with the name of Coronado, this was one of many large settlements established during the period of the 1325 to 1600 CE.
kwashiorkor	Also known as the “disease of the displaced child,” results in a loss of appetite and swelling of the abdomen as the body begins to break down the vital organs as a source of protein
kya	shorthand for thousands of years ago (see Chapter 2)
L. Bradford Prince	Appointed as a Governor of the New Mexico territory, Prince was also a leading member of the Santa Fe Ring.
La Cooperativa Agrícola de Tierra Amarilla	Formed in 1969, the cooperative addressed and worked to improve the economic, medical, educational and agricultural conditions of the Tierra Amarilla citizens in northern New Mexico.
La Corporación de Abiquíu	In the 1930s, heirs to the Tierra Amarilla Land Grant organized La Corporación de Abiquíu in order to raise funds and fight for the return of grant lands in the New Mexico courts. Through La Corporación, the heirs attempted to work through the legal system to achieve the ends that Las Gorras(...)
La Ferrassie	site in France with evidence of Neanderthal burial; skeletons are oriented east-west and are articulated
La Mano Negra	Known as "The Black Hand", this underground group was alleged to have killed and repressed members of the anarchy groups organized in rural Spain. In New Mexico history, groups of the Tierra Amarilla land grant activists used this moniker when fighting private ranchers and businesses for land(...)
La Raza Unida Party	Established in 1970, the "United Race Party" worked for better socio-economic, educational, and working conditions for Mexican Americans.
lactose tolerance	The ability to digest lactose into adulthood as a result of natural selection.
Laguna	New Mexico's largest Keresan speaking pueblo, today its population is more than 7,000.
Laguna Santero	While the identity of the Santero is unknown, the surviving altar screen, retablo mayor is located on the Pueblo of Laguna. Many retablo mayor throughout New Mexico have been attributed to this artist.
Land Tenure	Typical in common law systems, land tenure provides a ruler the right to own the land, while the private owner is the renter or sub renter. In native tribe, the notion of land tenure did not exist. However, in negotiating indigenous treaties, Europeans used the term aboriginal tenure to grant(...)
language acquisition device (LAD)	Chomsky’s term for the hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn the language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation
Larynx	Also called the voice-box; where the vocal cords are housed.
Lascaux Cave	A Pleistocene cave in France with numerous ice animal paintings.
Lascaux Cave	an Upper Paleolithic cave site in France known for its paintings, ca. 15-17,000 B.P.
latency stage	The fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning middle childhood, during which sexual development and sexual impulses are dormant
latillas	secondary wood support beams in a structure; vigas and latillas
law of effect	Behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged
Lawrence G. Murphy	Old West businessman and gunslinger, Murphy was prominent in the Lincoln County War and documented as the instigator of fights between corrupt businessmen and local ranchers during that period.
Laws of Burgos	Drafted in Burgos, Spain, this set of laws forbade the maltreatment of indigenous peoples of the New World and encouraged their conversion to Catholicism.
Laws of the Indies	A set of laws issued by the Spanish Empire concerning settler-native relations in the Americas and Philippines.
leader generativity	mentoring and passing on of skills and experience that older adults can provide at work to feel motivated
Leads	In an academic essay, an opening, usually located in the introduction, that hooks the reader into wanting to read further.
Learned helplessness	People who have extremely negative attributional styles, in which they continually make external, stable, and global attributions for their behavior.
Learning	The relatively permanent change in knowledge that is acquired through experience.
Legal Personhood	An entity that has legal rights and obligations
lens	lenticular (biconvex) shaped deposits; lenses were found inside Monks Mound representing basketloads of earth
Leó Szilárd	Szilárd was a Hungarian-American physicist who garnered President Roosevelt's support for atomic bomb research and development, which became the Manhattan Project .
Leslie Groves	Lieutenant General Leslie Richard Groves, Jr. oversaw the construction of the Pentagon and directed the Manhattan Project. After nuclear weapon responsibility shifted to the United States Atomic Energy Commission in 1947, Groves headed the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project.
Levirate	System where a brother steps in and marries his brother’s widow.
Lewis Binford	an influential American archaeologist who created the New Archaeology of the 1960s which sought to make archaeology more scientific
Lexigrams	Symbols representing ideas and objects used by Kanzi , a bonobo chimpanzee.
life expectancy	a statistical measure of the average time an organism is expected to live, based on the year of its birth, its current age and other demographic factors including gender
lifespan perspective	an approach to studying development which emphasizes that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, contextual, and multidisciplinary
Lifespan perspective	An approach to studying development which emphasizes that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, contextual, and multidisciplinary
limbic system	structures in the brain (including the amygdala) that involve processing emotional experience and social information and determining rewards and punishments; develops years before the prefrontal cortex
limpieza de sangre	"Purity of blood" claimed by many Spaniards, especially nobleman, indicating that they came from a strictly Christian lineage without Jewish or Muslim ancestry.
Linguistic Anthropology	Field of anthropology interested in human language
lintel	a horizontal block found over a doorway, window or fireplace. Wood lintels above doorways were dated using dendrochronology at Chaco Canyon sites
Little Texas	Section of the Llano Estacado in east-central and southeastern New Mexico that shares cultural ties with west Texas. Texan cattlemen moved into the region in the late 1800s, and Texan oil companies dominated the region’s economy during the first half of the twentieth century.
Lloyd Tireman	In Mexico during the 1920s, Tireman closely observed the post-revolutionary government's attempt to establish cultural missions in rural areas to provide education and other training to indigenous people. With the support of Mary Austin, Tireman established the San José Experimental School in(...)
Loaded terms	Words infused with negative associations.
Loco	Chief of the Warm Springs Apache tribe, who travelled to Washington D.C. to talk of negotiation. During the travel back, he was captured and held at Ft. Levenworth and eventually sent to Florida as a prisoner of war.
Logos	Appeals to reason, logic, and facts in an argument. In a rhetorical situation, it is the appeal most closely associated with the message.
Long Count	Maya system of tracking long periods of time from a base date; similar to the A.D. system
long-term memory	the third component of the memory system where information is stored for long periods of time
long-term memory	the storage of information over an extended period
longitudinal research	Studying a group of people who may be of the same age and background (cohort), and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time; may confound age and time of measurement effects
looking-glass self	the process by which our sense of self develops as we interact with others through various social relationships and incorporate the way those other people view us into our own sense of self
Lord of Sipán	refers to the highly decorated burial remains of the Moche culture. The tomb included the regalia of an elite male with objects of gold, silver, and copper. He is thought to represent a figure engaged in a human sacrifice ritual depicted on Moche pottery.
Lord Pacal	Maya king burial in the Temple of Inscriptions at Palenque
los niños heroes	Translated as "the heroic cadets" or "boy heros", during the Mexican American War six teenage Mexican cadets died defending the Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City against the U.S. Army in the Mexican American War.
Louis XIV	The King of France who ruled from 1643 until his death in 1715. His 72-year reign makes him the longest-serving monarch in Europe. Under his rule, France undertook massive colonization endeavors, claiming lands in the Americas and Africa.
Louisiana Purchase	In 1803, the U.S. purchased 828,000,000 acres of land from France. The Louisiana Purchase effectively increased the geography of the United States two-fold. The purchase was delineated by the Mississippi River to the east, the Rocky Mountains to the west, Canadian border to the north, and(...)
Lucien Maxwell	During the mid 1880s Maxwell was one of the largest private landholders in the United States. Additionally, Billy the Kid was killed by Pat Garrett at Maxwell's Fort Sumner home
Luis de Rosas	Rosas served as the ninth governor of New Mexico. His disagreements with the local populace led to his assassination in 1641.
Luis de Tupatú	Tupatú was a Pueblo leader who negotiated a peace settlement with Diego de Vargas between the Natives and Spaniards in New Mexico. He was subsequently appointed governor of all thirteen pueblos.
Luis Echeverría	President of Mexico (1970-1976) who nationalized the mining and electrical industries, imposed limits on foreign investment, and doubled the population covered by social security. Unfortunately, such measures were meant in part to cover up the Dirty War that his administration waged on the(...)
Luís Terrazas	Terrazas was a wealthy Mexican businessman, landowner, politician and entrepreneur who was Governor of Chihuahua on various occasions between 1858 and 1903.
Mabel Dodge Luhan	Influential and wealthy patron of early 20th century writers and artists, Luhan hosted the artists and literary giants of the day at her home in Taos. The group became the Taos Art Colony.
machine learning	a form of artificial intelligence where a computer learns from data and improves its responses over time.
macrosystem	Cultural elements such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global community which impact a community
Magic	System of causation or transformation that does not adhere to naturalistic causes.
maize	A large grain plant first domesticated by prehistoric native Americans. Today it is one of the world's most vital crops, also known as corn.
major depression	feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more
Majority influence	Occurs when the beliefs held by the larger number of individuals in the current social group prevail.
Male Parental Investment	When men provide care and protection for their children.
Malinche	Aside from referring to Cortés' Aztec lover (see Malintzin), the term is also often used in Mexican Spanish to call someone a traitor.
Malintzin	Also known as Malinche, an Aztec woman who was an interpreter, advisor, and lover for Hernán Cortés. She later gave birth to Cortés' first son, Martin, considered today to be one of the first Mestizos.
malnutrition	A condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more nutrients are deficient
Mana	A kind of force that can inhabit people and things common in the South Pacific.
Mandate	Used frequently in politics, mandate referred to the granting of representation of a group to another group based on a majority vote or majority voice.
Mangas Coloradas	An Apache headman who was instrumental in uniting the various Chiricahua Apache bands prior to the U.S.-Mexican War.
Manifest Destiny	An Anglo-centric ideal that freedom and democracy should be spread across a country or continent even if it meant displacing natives from their territory. This ideal, in the U.S.,started the large population of settlers moving to the west in the 1880s and was a prelude to the U.S.-Mexican War.
mano	A grinding stone used to process corn usually used in combination with a larger stone called the "metate."
Manuel Archuleta	Archuleta was a co-founder of the Raza Unida Party (RUP) in New Mexico along with José Peña in 1971. As an undergraduate at New Mexico Highlands University, Archuleta studied the political ideas of Daniel de Leon, founder of the Socialist Labor Party. He applied his political research to his(...)
Manuel Armijo	Manuel Armijo was born in 1793 to a prominent Albuquerque family. He served as alcalde (mayor) of Albuquerque on several occasions in the 1820s. During his tenure as alcalde, he led an expedition against Apaches. In 1827 he began his first term as governor of New Mexico. He also maintained a(...)
Manuel C. de Baca	A leading member of one of the most politically and economically powerful nuevomexicano families, Baca served as probate judge in San Miguel County during the time frame in which Las Gorras Blancas were most active. He denounced their movement and supported the forces of modernization. In 1892(...)
Manuel Chávez	Lieutenant Major Chávez served as guide for Major Chivington of the Colorado Volunteers during the Battle of Glorieta Pass. Chávez and Chivington happened upon and captured the Confederate supply chain. Deprived of supplies, the Confederate Army was forced to retreat to El Paso.
Manuel Cortez	One of the insurgent leaders during the Taos Revolt 1847.
Manuel de la Peña y Peña	Peña y Peña was President of Mexico during the period in which the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was ratified. He supported the treaty because he believed that to reject it would place Mexico at risk for renewed war with the United States. His central concern, however, was to protect the(...)
Manuelito	Navajo headman Manuelito strongly resisted the encroachments of the U.S. Army on Diné lands. He led efforts to resist the campaign to force his people to the Bosque Redondo, and he was one of the last to submit himself and his band to the Long Walk.
Marcos de Niza	Marcos de Niza was a Franciscan friar who journeyed through the Americas, claiming to have seen one of the Seven Cities of Cibola. His testimony sparked the Coronado Expedition.
Marguerite Baca	Baca was active in the women's suffrage movement and politics in New Mexico. She was one of the first women to hold a state-level position of political prominence, serving as Secretary of State from 1930 to 1934.
María Gertrudís Váldez de Veramendi	A native of San Antonio, María Gertrudís Váldez de Veremendi was a widow when she met James Magoffin in Saltillo in 1834. The couple married in 1834; her social prominence helped Magoffin to make vital business connections throughout northern Mexico.
María Varela	María was born and raised in Chicago to a Mexican immigrant father and an Irish-American mother. Following her graduation with a degree in Secondary Education from Alverno College in 1961, she traveled to Alabama to participate in the actions of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in(...)
Mariano Salas	Salas was the Mexican General of the Alamo who also served as 16th President of Mexico for a few months, subsequently turning the position over to Santa Anna. Prior to becoming the President, Salas was exiled due to his support of Santa Anna.
Mark Smith	Marcus "Mark" A. Smith served for eight consecutive terms as the Territorial Delegate to Congress from the Arizona Territory. In the first decade of the twentieth century, he became a vocal opponent of the jointure proposal.
Mark Test	A test for visual self-recognition using a mirror and a mark on the body
Marqués de Rubí	Spanish nobleman and military official tasked by Carlos III to inspect the northern frontier defenses of the Spanish colonies in the Americas.
martilocal	A societal custom where a married couple lives with or near the wife's parents.
Martin Van Buren	Van Buren served as the eighth U.S. President. In an attempt to resolve the hostilities between the U.S. and Mexico, Van Buren denied Texas' request to join the United States.
martyr parent	parent who will do anything for the child, even tasks that the child should do independently, may later use what they have done for the child to invoke guilt and compliance
Mary Austin	Born in 1868, Mary Austin was one of the most prominent women writers of the Southwest. Her most famous works include "The Land of Little Rain" and Taos Pueblo," both of which included photographs by Ansel Adams in editions published in 1950. Through her novels, poetry, and short stories,(...)
Mary Colter	Mary Colter was a renowned architect, most famous for her work on Hopi House at the Grand Canyon.
Mary Tibbles McPherson	McPherson was the mother of Ada Morley. Although she lived in Iowa, she kept track of the political situation in Colfax County through her daughter and son-in-law. Ada's attempt to intercept her letter that denounced the actions of members of the Santa Fe Ring sparked violence in the county.(...)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs	A motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals are motivated to attend to needs higher up
masturbation	sexual self-stimulation, usually achieved by touching, stroking, or massaging the male or female genitals until this triggers an orgasm
matching hypothesis	we tend to be attracted to those who are similar to us in age, social class, race, education, physical attractiveness, values, and attitudes
material culture	physical traces of the past (see Chapter 1)
matrilineal	A system where descent is based on the mother's family line.
matrilocal	A societal custom where a married couple lives with or near the wife's parents.
Matthew S. Quay	Quay was a Senator from Pennsylvania who promoted greater protection for the African-American civil rights movement.
Mauricio Corredor	Corredor was a Tarahumara man who served with Joaquín Terrazas' forces during the assault on Tres Castillos in 1880. When the dust settled following the battle that fall, Corredor received credit for killing Chiricahua headman Victorio.
Maximiliano Luna	The most distinguished Hispanic Rough Rider during the Spanish American War
Maxwell Land Grant	Governor Armijo made a land grant for two entrepreneurs, Miranda and Beaubien. The local Taos pueblos leaders considered the grant illegal due to historically native grazing and farming land. This land passed back and forth between locals and foreigners causing mistrust of government and(...)
mayordomo	An overseer who directs communal water allocation with the acequias
Mediation	Helping to create compromise by using third-party negotiation.
megafauna	Derived from the Greek word "megas" meaning large and the Latin word "fauna" meaning animal, the term refers to overly large animals.
megafauna	large animals that characterized the Pleistocene (see Chapter 3)
melatonin	sleep hormone whose levels rise later at night and decrease later in the morning for teens, compared to children and adults
Melchor Ocampo	Ocampo was a contemporary of Benito Juarez. During Ocampo's appointment as the Minister of the Interior, he drafted Reform Laws which resulted in the separation of church and state in Mexico.
Member characteristics	Are the relevant traits, skills, or abilities of the individual group members.
menarche	a girl’s first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche
Menaul School	Formerly know as the Pueblo Training School run by the Presbyterian church under a contract with the U.S. Government. After the school contract was ended by the Commission on Indian Affairs, the Presbyters then purchased the land surrounding the current location, started a boarding school and(...)
Ménière’s disease	results in a degeneration of inner ear structures that can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, vertigo, and an increase in pressure within the inner ear
menopause	period of transition in which a woman’s ovaries stop releasing eggs and the level of estrogen and progesterone production decreases
mercantilism	The economic theory used in Europe between the 16th and 18th Centuries that suggested limited availability of wealth in the world. It was a large contributing factor in military expansion, augmentation of state power, and overseas expansion for European powers.
mercedarios	Mercedario is the Spanish term for land grant heir.
Mere exposure	The tendency to prefer stimuli (including, but not limited to, people) that we have seen frequently.
Mesa Verde	This massive cliff dwelling was home to the Ancestral Puebloan subsistence farmers from 600 to 1300 CE.
Mesoamerica	A region extending from Mexico to Central America that was the home of several pre-columbian cultures, most notably Aztec and Maya.
Mesoamerica	area from central Mexico through Central America, the Classic Maya and Olmec were located in Mesoamerica, maize was domesticated in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerican ballgame	ritualized Mesoamerican game that used a rubber ball; associated with fertility, sacrifice and militarism
Mesolithic	Middle Stone Age; cultural tradition that followed the Pleistocene marked by broad spectrum foraging, groundstone tools, and strong evidence for dog domestication
mesosystem	Larger organizational structures such as school, the family, or religion
Message	In a rhetorical situation, a message is the text being conveyed by the speaker.
mestizo	Meaning "mixed-race," a person who claimed both Spanish and Native American ancestry. They resided in the middle rungs of Spanish society, below pure Spaniards and above Africans slaves.
Meta-analysis	A statistical procedure in which the results of existing studies are combined to determine what conclusions can be drawn on the basis of all the studies considered together.
metacognition	refers to “thinking about thinking” and it is relevant in social cognition and results in increased introspection, self-consciousness, and intellectualization during adolescence
Metaphor	A direct comparison between two things, as in Hope is the thing with feathers (Emily Dickinson, “Hope”).
metate	A large stone on which corn is ground by a smaller stone called the "mano."
Metonymy	When one thing is represented by another thing associated with it, as in The pen is mightier than the sword (where pen stands in for writing, and sword stands in for warfare or violence)
Mexica	The term rulers of the Aztec Empire used to refer to themselves.
Mexican Revolution	The Mexican Revolution was a 10-year-long armed conflict that began as a movement to oust the aging dictator, Porfirio Díaz, in 1910. Political turmoil following his resignation and continued infighting among various revolutionary factions ushered in a period of brutal civil war. Violence(...)
mica	a naturally occurring mineral silicate that separates into thin sheets
Michael Steck	Steck was a superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Territory of New Mexico under President Abraham Lincoln. Steck brought "Lincoln Canes" (walking sticks) to the New Mexico Pueblos as a peaceful intent gesture.
microlith	small pieces of sharp stone made from sections of longer blades and flakes and make more efficient use of stone; these were inserted into handles to economize toolstone
microsystem	Immediate surrounds including those who have direct, significant contact with the person, such as parents or siblings
Middens	Trash mounds.
middle school	a school for children in the grades between elementary school and high school. Middle school usually begins with grade 6 and ends with grade 8
Miguel A. Otero, Jr	Otero Jr. was the 16th Territorial Governor of New Mexico and the son of Miguel Otero Sr. Enamored with outlaws and law enforcement "stars of the west", Otero penned an autobiography about his interactions with legends such as Kit Carson, Billy The Kid, Jesse James and Bat Masterson
Miguel A. Otero, Sr.	Otero Sr. was an influential politician, businessman and entrepreneur. He was the longest serving Hispanic delegate to the New Mexico Legislature in the 19th century.
Miguel de Hidalgo y Costilla	Hidalgo was a Catholic priest and leader of the Mexican independence against Spanish rule.
Milhiser v. Padilla	This 1887 lawsuit challenged the Padilla brothers' right to erect fences on the Las Vegas Land Grant commons near a site called La Monilla, thirteen miles east of Las Vegas. Judge Elisha V. Long ruled in favor of the nuevomexicanos in this case, although the decision did not set a precedent(...)
milk anemia	An iron deficiency in infants who have been maintained on a milk diet for too long
Mimbres Black-on-white	ceramic type of the Mimbres Mogollon region known for its artistry and spectacular iconography
Minority influence	Occurs when the beliefs held by the smaller number of individuals in the current social group prevail.
Mirabeau B. Lamar	Lamar was the President of the Republic of Texas who organized the ill-fated Texan-Santa Fe Expedition.
Misinterpretation	to interpret, explain, or understand incorrectly
Mississippian Tradition	Moundbuilder culture of the eastern U.S. marked by platform mounds, social hierarchy, and shared religious ideologies (ca. AD 800-AD 1500); Cahokia in Illinois is an example
mitosis	The process of cell division
mnemonic devices	mental strategies to help learn and remember information more efficiently; improves during adolescence
Moche	archaeological tradition of northern Peru; known for its portrait pots, adobe brick monuments, and ritual combat
Moche "sex pots"	sexually explicit pots typically representing non-reproductive acts found among the Moche of northern Peru
Mogollon	Mogollon is one of four major cultures from the Southwest from 1400 to 1450 CE. The Mogollon lived in the northern Mexico and in the south central United States.
moiety	The way Pueblo communities are divided into two halves.
mold matrix	the original model from which a ceramic mold is made; used by the Moche to produce portrait vessels
Moluccas	Refers to an Indonesian archipelago called the Maluku Islands, known as the "Spice Islands" to the Spanish.
Monk's Mound	the largest prehistoric structure north of Mexico, about 100 ft. high and covering 14 acres at its base; located at the Mississippian site of Cahokia in Illinois
Monogamy	Having a single mate for life.
Monometer	A one-foot line.
Monotheism	Religion with typically one major deity.
monozygotic	Derived from a single ovum
Montgomery Ward	In competition with Sears, Montgomery Ward was founded in Chicago, Illinois immediately after the Civil War as a mail order merchandiser. Thriving in sales during World War I, the Great Depression, and World War II, Wards eventually went out of business after nearly 130 years.
Mood	The emotional weight or atmosphere of a story, created through details, description and other craft features.
Morality beliefs	The set of social norms that describe the principles and ideals, as well as the duties and obligations, that we view as appropriate and that we use to judge the actions of others and to guide our own behavior.
moratorium	an adolescent’s choice of a socially acceptable way to postpone making identity-achievement decisions. Going to college is a common example. Engaged in questioning, but not yet making a commitment, according to Marcia’s theory
Morehouse College	Founded shortly after the Civil War, Morehouse College is a private, all male, historically African American college in Atlanta Georgia. Martin Luther King Jr. was a Morehouse Alumni.
morpheme	the smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning
Morphology	The study of the forms of things, in particular.
morphology	form (see Chapter 2)
mortar	cup-like vessel made of stone used for processing plants like acorns
mortuary mounds	earthen mounds containing skeletons; Hopewell and Mississippian tradition used mortuary mounds for burying their dead
Moses Austin	Moses Austin born in 1821 is a co-founder to the American Lead Industry. He was one of the first men to gain permission to bring Anglo’s to Texas.
motor skills	The word “motor” refers to the movement of the muscles. Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects
Multi-cropping	Practice of planting several crops in one plot in order to increase productivity
multiplicity	recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known
mural	wall painting
muscle dysmorphia	sometimes called “reverse anorexia” this is an obsession with being small and underdeveloped; extreme concern with becoming more muscular
Mutation	A change to the sequence of bases in DNA.
mutation	A sudden permanent change in a gene
mya	shorthand for millions of years ago (see Chapter 2)
myelin	A coating of fatty tissues around the axon of the neuron
myelination	an aspect of brain maturation in which more myelin is formed around the axons of neurons, thereby increasing neural transmission
myelination	insulation of neurons’ axons with fatty substance (myelin sheath) that helps speed up the processing of information; myelination starts to increase in the prefrontal cortex during adolescence
NAGPRA	legislation that stipulates human remains and other culturally important items found on federal lands should be repatriated or returned to tribes that can demonstrate cultural affiliation
NAGPRA	Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990
Nahua	The language of the Aztec Empire that dominated Mesoamerican culture.
naming explosion	a sudden increase in an infant’s vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age
Nana	Apache warrior and chief who fought along with Mangas Coloradas and Victorio during the Apache Wars between 1849 and 1886. Nana is the Mexican-Spanish derivative of his Apache name, Kastziden.
Narbona	Navajo Chief who sought a peaceful resolution and negotiated with the U.S. Government during the American-Indian Wars.
Nathan Clifford	The U.S. Ambassador to Mexico in 1848, Democrat Nathan Clifford issued the Querétaro Protocol--a document that explained the reasoning for the alterations to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo made by the U.S. Congress prior to its ratification.
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (NHPA)	legislation aimed at preserving archaeological and historical sites in the United States (see Chapter 2)
National Register of Historic Places	a list of archaeological and historical sites deemed worthy of preservation; established by the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (see Chapter 2)
native copper	refers to naturally occurring copper in a chemically uncombined state
nature	The influences of biology and genetics on behavior
Navajo Progressive League	Jacob C. Morgan organized the Navajo Progressive Leage as a representative body to counter the influence of the tribal council that had been handpicked by John Collier and BIA agents in the 1930s. At the heart of the conflict between the two groups was the issue of livestock reduction. The(...)
Nednhi	Translates to "the enemy people" or "the people who make trouble." Often called Bronco Apaches, Sierra Madre Apaches, and Southern Chiricahua.
negative correlation	Two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation
negative punishment	a desirable stimulus is removed to decrease a behavior; for example, losing the privilege of playing a desired game or using a desired item
negative reinforcement	an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior; for example, the car beeping goes away when we click into the seatbelt
neglected	children who tend to go unnoticed but are not especially liked or disliked by their peers
Negotiation	The process by which two or more parties formally work together to attempt to resolve a perceived divergence of interest in order to avoid or resolve social conflict.
Neolithic	tool tradition marked by groundstone tools and pottery; associated with agriculture
Neolocal Residence	When the wedded couple established a new residence.
Neologism	A newly coined word or expression.
neurons	Nerve cells in the central nervous system, especially in the brain
neurosis	A tendency to experience negative emotions
neurotransmitters	Brain chemicals that carry information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron
New Mexico Cultural Properties Act of 1978	Among other things, this state legislation stipulates that it is unlawful to intentionally excavate a marked or unmarked burial on private land in New Mexico. A permit is required to use mechanical earth-moving equipment on an archaeological site on private land in New Mexico. (see Chapter(...)
Newton Baker	Newton D. Baker was an American politician that belonged to the Democratic Party. He was the 37th mayor of Cleveland, Ohio from 1912 to 1915 and as U.S. Secretary of War from 1916 to 1921.
Nezahualcoyotl	Ruler of Tenochtitlan's neighboring city-state of Texcoco. His people were not Aztec, but Acolhua, settling on the eastern side of Lake Texcoco.
Niels Bohr	A Danish physicist. Bohr's model of the atom and his work in quantum physics helped Manhattan Project scientists understand and create the atom bomb
Nim Chimpsky	A chimp taught to use ASL; his signs were analyzed quantitatively by psychologist Herb Terrace.
Nineteenth Amendment	This amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibits denying the right to vote based on gender. Initially introduced in 1878, the amendment was not passed until 1920.
Noble Savage	Idea that traditional people are naturally good or noble not having been corrupted by civilization
Non-normative influences	Unpredictable influences not tied to a certain developmental time, personally or historical period
Nonphysical aggression	Aggression that does not involve physical harm.
Normative age-graded influences	Biological and environmental factors that have a strong correlation with chronological age
Normative conformity	When we express opinions or behave in ways that help us to be accepted or that keep us from being isolated or rejected by others.
Normative history-graded influences	Influences associated with a specific time period that define the broader bio-cultural context in which an individual develops
North Acropolis at Tik'al	a huge platform that appears to have been a burial place for Tikal nobles
Northwest Ordinance of 1787	Adopted by the Confederation Congress in 1787, this ordinance established a form of government and steps to statehood for regions in the northwest territory.
Nucleotide Bases	Steps of the DNA ladder that pair together, A with T and G with C.
Nueces Strip	The Nueces Strip was the territory between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande that was disputed claimed by both the Texas Republic and the nation of Mexico in the lead-up to the U.S. Mexico War. Texans pushed their claim to include all land to the Rio Grande’s headwaters—an assertion that(...)
Nuer woman-woman marriage	Practice where women marriage each other in order to produce and heir or escape domestic violence.
nuevomexicano	Descendants of Spanish and Mexican colonists who settled in the New Mexico region. Many claimed purity of blood to climb atop the social hierarchy, when in fact they are of mixed-race heritage.
Numunu	"The people" in Comanche; what the Comanches called themselves
Nurture	Environmental, social, and cultural influences of behavior
object permanence	The understanding that even if something is out of sight it still exists, develops between 5 and 8 months old
object permanence	the realization that objects (including people) still exist even if they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard
Objectivity	The ability to perceive a subject without being influenced by personal biases or emotions.
Observational research	Research that involves making observations of behavior and recording those observations in an objective manner.
observational studies	Also called naturalistic observation, involves watching and recording the actions of participants
occupation	episode of human use
Octameter	An eight-foot line.
Octave	A stanza containing eight lines.
Octaviano Larrazolo	Fourth Governor of New Mexico and a U.S. Senator. Larrazolo was the first Hispanic United States Senator and of Mexican-American heritage. During his tenure, he was an advocate of bilingual education, civil rights for Mexican immigrants and supported women's suffrage.
Ojos Colorados	An Apache headsman whose raids terrorized the New Spanish northern frontier for almost two years.
Old Copper Complex	refers to a copper industry around the Great Lakes region dating to around 4000 BCE. The old copper culture represents one of the few hunter-gatherer "cultures" that used metals.
old wood problem	refers to inaccuracy of dating a structure using dendrochronology because wood beams from older structures were re-used when building new structures
Omnivorous	Ability to consume both animal and plant foods
open-air site	sites located in open space and often exposed to erosion from wind and water; contrasts with cave and rock shelter sites (see Chapter 3)
operant conditioning	A form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences
Operational definition	The particular method that we use to measure a variable of interest.
operationalized	Concepts transformed into variables that can be measured in research
operations	the term used by Piaget to mean the logical rules that children develop with time
oral stage	The first stage of psychosexual development when infants needs are met primarily through oral gratification
Oregon Fever	As migration in the U.S. headed westward, many pioneers, traders, trappers and immigrant headed for the Oregon Territory. There were so many people moving that they called the migration "Oregon Fever."
Oregon Trail	The westward migration route from Missouri to western United States beginning in 1843 with the largest group of migrants making the five month journey.
origin myths	Stories and oral histories from various cultures to describe the origins of certain phenomenons in nature and society.
osteologist	expert in bone analysis (see Chapter 2)
osteoporosis	the decline and loss of bone density and the increasing fragile and brittle condition of bones from a loss of tissue
osteoporosis	a condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin, often brought about by a lack of calcium in the diet
osteosarcopenia	when someone has both sarcopenia and osteoporosis, or both muscle and bone tissue loss
Ota Benga	Mbuti man who became part of a zoo exhibit in New York in 1906.
Other-concern	The motivation to affiliate with, accept, and be accepted by others.
Outgroup homogeneity	The tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to each other than we see members of ingroups.
Outline	A detailed summary of the important points in a text.
Overjustification	Occurs when we view our behavior as caused by the situation, leading us to discount the extent to which our behavior was actually caused by our own interest in it.
overregulation	a process in learning a language in which children overgeneralize rules to words where the rule is not applicable
Oxytocin	A hormone that is important in female reproduction and that also influences social behaviors, including the development of long-term romantic attachments.
P. G. T. Beauregard	Beauregard marched with General Scott's army from Veracruz to Mexico City in 1847 as part of the final offensives of the U.S.-Mexico War. He gained notoriety during the U.S. Civil War as an effective Confederate general.
Pablo and Nicanor Herrera	One of the three Herrera brothers to organize the Las Gorras Blancas, a group formed to fight the Anglo land grabbers, in northern New Mexico.
Pablo Montoya	Montoya was a vecino of Taos Pueblo who supported the Chimayó Rebellion in 1837 and who later played an instrumental role in the 1847 Taos Revolt that directly challenged the U.S. occupation. His contemporaries claim that he styled himself as the "Santa Anna of the North." Along with Tomasito,(...)
Padilla Brothers	The three Padilla brothers (José, Francisco, and Pablo Padilla) build fences on the Las Vegas Land Grant commons in the mid 1880s in order to protect nuevomexicano access to land and resources. Their actions were the basis of the Milhiser v. Padilla suit.
padrinos	The godparent of a child who sponsors his/her baptism is a padrino. In nonreligious terms, it is an individual chosen by the child's parents to participate in the raising and caring of the child.
pal parent	wants to be the child’s friend and focuses on being entertaining and fun
Palace of the Governors	Construction of the original adobe structure on the north side of the Santa Fe Plaza began in 1610 not long after the arrival of Governor Pedro de Peralta and the relocation of the colonial capital to the villa de Santa Fe. The Palace of the Governors was the site of governmental(...)
Paleoanthropology	Study human human fossil ancestors
palimpsest	something that is continuously reused or written or painted over like a manuscript or Upper Paleolithic cave artwork
palimpsest	something that has been written or drawn on multiple times
palliative care	an interdisciplinary approach to specialized medical and nursing care for people with life-limiting illnesses. It focuses on providing relief from the symptoms, pain, physical stress, and mental stress at any stage of illness, with a goal of improving the quality of life for both the person(...)
Pantoum	Originating in Malaysia, the pantoum was adapted by French poets. It consists of an unlimited number of quatrains in which the second and fourth lines of each are repeated in the first and third lines of the next. The first and third lines of the first stanza become the final stanza’s second(...)
parasuicide	any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death. (also called attempted suicide or failed suicide)
parietal art	cave art (see Chapter 3)
Parkinson's Disease	long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system which mainly affects the motor system, first characterized by shaking, rigidity, slowness of movement, and difficulty with walking, but thinking and behavioral problems may also occur
Parral	A town in northern Mexico that largely developed due to its silver mining industry during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Partible Paternity	The idea that the fetus is formed from the semen of more than one man.
Participant Observation	Becoming actively embedded in a culture while making observations. Used by cultural anthropologists.
Partido System	The partido system was a formalized patron-client relationship that dated back to the Spanish colonial period. Most nuevomexicanos lacked the resources or capital to secure their own sheep or implements. Under the system, a rico patron furnished an agreed upon number of sheep to a partidario(...)
Passive	A sentence construction where the subject is not clear or the subject is not performing the action in the sentence.
passive coping	characterized by avoidance and distraction; outcomes tend to not be as positive as with active coping
passive euthanasia	a type of voluntary euthanasia that is passive, such as no longer feeding someone or giving them food
Passive voice	A sentence construction where the subject is not clear or the subject is not performing the action in the sentence.
pastoral	A semi-nomadic lifestyle based on herding sheep and changing locations depending on changes in water and grazing availability.
Pastoralism	Herding
Pat Garrett	Originally from Alabama, Pat Garrett was appointed to serve as Lincoln County's Sherriff in 1880. Prior to his service as sheriff, he had worked as a cowboy in Texas. He also had prior dealings with Billy the Kid. As sheriff, however, his main task was to bring Billy the Kid to justice for his(...)
Pathos	Appeals to the emotions and cultural beliefs of the listeners or readers. In a rhetorical situation, it is the appeal most closely associated with the audience.
Patrilocal Residence	When the bride moves into the house of the groom’s family.
patriots	Patriots were settlers of the 13 British colonies in North America who fought against the Crown for independence.
patronato real	A system of royal patronage in Spain where the crown played an involved role in the administration and support of the church, creating a church-state with backing from the Pope that was formative to the Spanish Empire's rise to power.
Paulita Maxwell	Alleged as Billy the Kid's sweetheart, Paulita Jaramillo need Maxwell, of Mexican and Spanish heritage denied being anything other than Billy's good friend.
Payupki	A Hopi village that was a place of refuge for people of the Sandia Pueblo during the Pueblo Revolt and subsequent Spanish reconquest.
Peace Pipe Ceremony	historic ceremony used by Native American nations during which violence was suspended; Hopewell pipes may have served a similar function
Pedro de Ampudia	Pedro Nolasco Martín José María de la Candelaria Francisco Javier Ampudia y Grimarest (Pedro de Ampudia) was born in Havana, Cuba, in 1805. He became an Army officer at a young age and later became Governor of Tabasco, Yucatán and Nuevo León. Before war broke out with the United States in(...)
Pedro de Villasur	Villasur was a Spanish lieutenant who led an expedition to check on the growing French presence in the Great Plains region. He was killed in combat when the expedition was attacked and overwhelmed by Pawnee and Otoe Indians.
Pedro García Conde	Under Mexican President President José Joaquín Herrera, Garcia was the Secretary of War during the time Santa Ana attempted to reclaim power. Garcia is also noted in history as a cartographer in mapping Chihuahua state in Mexico, southern New Mexico and parts of California.
Pedro Ignacio Gallego	Gallego was a militia leader from Abiquiú who welcomed William Becknell's party into New Mexico in 1821, effectively opening the Santa Fe Trade.
Pedro Reneros de Posada	Posada was the titular governor of New Mexico between 1686 and 1689. He led an unsuccessful expedition in 1687 to reclaim New Mexico for the Crown.
Pedro Rodríguez	Rodríguez headed the Chicano Studies department at New Mexico Highlands University in the 1960s and 1970s, and he supported the organization of La Raza Unida Party in San Miguel County.
peer pressure	encouragement to conform to one’s friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude; usually considered a negative force, as when adolescent peers encourage one another to defy adult authority
Pekka Hämäläinen	Finnish historian who argued that Comanche dominance was largely due to its implementation of its own economically-driven imperialism.
pelvic inflammatory disease	an infection of the upper part of the female reproductive system, namely the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, and inside of the pelvis
peninsulares	Colonial settlers in Latin America that had been previously born in Spain.
Penitente Brotherhood	A lay Catholic fraternity, the Penitente Brotherhood, was created in the tradition of other such organizations that dated back to reconquest Iberia. They abided by their own set of by-laws and initiation ceremonies, but their main purpose was to serve their local communities and to purify(...)
Pentad	A learning tool (developed by social philosopher Kenneth Burke) that helps break apart information into five interrelated components that determine its overall shape and direction (Act, Agent, Agency, Scene, Purpose)
Pentameter	A five-foot line.
Penultimate	Second to last.
percentile	A point on a ranking scale of 0 to 100. The 50th percentile is the midpoint; half of the infants in the population being studied rank higher and half rank lower
perception	The process of interpreting what is sensed
peripheral slowing process	the theory that overall processing speed declines with age in the peripheral nervous system
permissive parenting	involves being a friend to a child rather than an authority figure. Children are allowed to make their own rules and determine their own activities
permissive parenting	parenting that is low in demandingness and high in support
Person perception	The process of learning about other people.
Persona	Comes from the Latin word for mask; it's the version of the writer that they want to illustrate for the reader in a memoir.
Personal attribution	When we decide that the behavior was caused primarily by the person.
Personal distress	The negative emotions that we may experience when we view another person’s suffering.
personal fable	an aspect of adolescent egocentrism characterized by an adolescent’s belief that his or her thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique, more wonderful, or more awful than anyone else’s
Personal narrative	A personal narrative tells the true story of something that happened to the writer.
Personal observation	Similar to testimony, but consists of ones own testimony; it reflects what you know to be true because you have experiences and have formed either opinions or judgements.
Personification	Human characteristics being applied to non-human things, as in irises, all /funnel & hood, papery tongues whispering little / rumors in their mouths (Laura Kasischke, “Hostess”).
Perspective	In analysis, your personal insight into a text; what a text means to you and why you think it's significant.
Persuasive writing	Writing created to convince, motivate, or move readers toward a certain point of view or opinion.
pestle	stone pounding tool, usually roughly cylindrical. Used with a mortar.
Petrarchan sonnet	This sonnet contains two stanzas: one octet that rhymes as A B B A–A B B A, and a remaining sextet with varying rhyme schemes. The volta occurs between the stanzas.
petroglyph	an image pecked or scratched into rock; contrast with a pictograph which is painted with pigment
phallic stage	The third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of 3 to 6 years, when the young child’s libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone
phallic stage	the third stage in Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, lasting from age three to six years, during which the libido (desire) centers upon the genitalia and children become aware of bodies
phenomenal field	Our subjective reality, all that we are aware of, including objects and people as well as our behaviors, thoughts, images, and ideas
Phenotype	The expression of a gene.
phenotype	The individual’s inherited physical characteristics
phoneme	a basic sound unit of a given language
physical abuse	the use of intentional physical force to cause harm
Physical aggression	Aggression that involves harming others physically.
Physical attractiveness stereotype	The tendency to perceive attractive people as having positive characteristics, such as sociability and competence.
physician-assisted suicide	occurs when a physician prescribes the means by which a person can end his or her own life. This differs from euthanasia, in that it is mandated by a set of laws and is backed by legal authority. Physician-assisted suicide is legal in the District of Columbia and several states, including(...)
physiological death	when vital organs no longer function
phytolith	small particles of silica derived from the cells of plants, they preserve even after the plant has decayed, used to determine the location of farmland at Catalhoyuk
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development	A description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal
Pierre and Paul Mallet	Brothers and French Canadian explorers who were the first Europeans to cross the Great Plains. They journeyed from Illinois to Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Pierre Vial	Early 19th century French wayfinder, Pierre Vial, helped establish routes and pathways which eventually became the Santa Fe Trail, the commercial highway between Missouri and Santa Fe. He is commonly called "Pedro" in Spanish records.
Pike's Peak	A mountain in the front range of the Rocky Mountains, originally called "El Capitán" by the Spanish.
pincer grasp	A developmental milestone that typically occurs at 9 to 12 months of age; the coordination of the index finger and thumb to hold smaller objects; represents a further development of fine motor skills
Pionsenay	Pionsenay and his brother Skinya rose to prominence among the Central Chiricahuas in the Arizona Territory following Cochise's death in 1874.
pithouse	semi-subterranean structures (partially dug into the ground) structures; used by Hohokam (shallow) and Mogollon (deep) of the American Southwest
placenta	An organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy to provide oxygen and nutrients to the fetus
placenta	A structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord
Plan de San Luís Potosí	A 1910 political statement penned by Francisco Madero and his supporters in San Antonio, the Plan de San Luis Potosí called for the uprising and overthrow of the Mexican authoritarian government and movement toward democracy. The plan initiated the Mexican Revolution.
Plan de Tomé	The Plan de Tomé was the title given to the counter-revolt led by Manuel Armijo to suppress the government of José Gonzales that had been established through the Chimayó Rebellion.
plaster hypothesis	the belief that personality is set like plaster by around the age of thirty
platform mounds	flat-topped earthen mounds; found in Mississippian Tradition sites and the Hohokam
platform pipes	pipes associated with the Hopewell tradition that are associated with leaders in mortuary contexts; may have served similar purpose to historic Peace Pipe Ceremony
Pleistocene	A geological epoch from 2.5 million to 11,700 years ago that's characterized by increased glacial activity and megafauna.
Pleistocene	The epoch of the ice ages roughly 2 mya to 12 kya.
Pleistocene	time period from 2 mya to abut 10 kya marked by ice ages (cold trends) and warming period (interglacials); climate during the Pleistocene was highly variable
Plot	The events as they unfold in sequence.
police officer/drill sergeant parent	focuses primarily on making sure that the child is obedient and that the parent has full control of the child
Polygamy	The practice or custom of having more than one wife or husband at the same time.
Polygyny	Males have more than one female spouse.
Polytheism	Religion with many deities.
Ponciano Arriaga	Ponciano Arriaga was born in 1811. During his adult life, he made a career as a lawyer and a legislative representative in San Luis Potosí, Mexico. Along with other liberal politicians in 1848, he called for the continuation of hostilities against the United States after Mexican conservatives(...)
Po'pay	Po'pay, also spelled "Popé," was a Tewa religious leader of Ohkay Owingeh who led the Pueblo Revolt against the Spanish colonizers. It was the first successful uprising that kept the Spanish out of Pueblo lands for more than a decade. His influence in the revolt is still under scholarly debate.
popular-antisocial	children who gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others
popular-prosocial	children who are popular because they are nice and have good social skills
positive correlation	Two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller
positive punishment	an undesirable stimulus is added to decrease a behavior; for example, spanking or receiving a speeding ticket
positive reinforcement	a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior; for example, stickers on a behavior chart or words of encouragement
post-conventional moral development	stages 5 and 6 of moral development where morality comes from personal understanding of rights and justice, regardless of whether that understanding matches societal norms
post-cranial	means "below the neck" or cranium (see Chapter 3)
post-processualism	an approach to archaeology that stressed multiple ways of knowing the past; rejected processual archaeology as too reductionist; championed by British archaeologist Ian Hodder
Postdecisional dissonance	The feeling of regret that may occur after we make an important decision.
postformal thought	a more individualistic and realistic type of thinking that occurs after Piaget’s last stage of formal operations
Potsdam Conference	A meeting between Russia, the United States, and England to negotiate the terms for the end of World War II.
pottery	fired ceramic vessels; contrast to the word "ceramic" which does not imply a vessel
pre-conventional moral development	first 2 stages of moral development where morality comes from outside the person, and the concern is on physical consequences of actions
Precise diction	Words that are clear and specific.
preform	template of a finished tool
Prefrontal cortex	The part of the brain that lies in front of the motor areas of the cortex and that helps us remember the characteristics and actions of other people, plan complex social behaviors, and coordinate our behaviors with those of others.
prefrontal cortex	The area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control
prefrontal cortex	the area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control
prefrontal cortex	part of the frontal lobes, involved with decision making, cognitive control, and other higher order functions; prefrontal cortex develops further during adolescence
pregnancy-related death	The death of a woman while pregnant or within 1 year of the end of a pregnancy from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy
Pregunta	This Spanish form was practiced by poets of the court in pairs during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. One poet asks a question or series of questions in one form and the second poet, matching the form, answers. The topics usually related to love, philosophy, or morality.
prehistory	period of human history without written records (see Chapter 1)
Prejudice	An unjustifiable negative attitude toward an outgroup or toward the members of that outgroup.
prenatal diagnosis	An aspect of prenatal care focused on pursuing additional detailed information once a particular problem has been found
prenatal screening	An aspect of prenatal care focused on finding problems among a large population with affordable and noninvasive methods
preoperational stage	The stage in which children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play, lasts approximately 2 to 7 years old
preoperational stage	the second stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; describes the development in children ages 2-7
presbycusis	hearing loss as a result of aging
presbycusis	age-related sensorineural hearing loss resulting from degeneration of the cochlea or associated structures of the inner ear or auditory nerves
presbyopia	farsightedness caused by loss of flexibility of the lens of the eye as a result of aging
Present tense	A tense expressing an action that is currently going on or habitually performed, or a state that currently or generally exists.
prestige goods	items restricted to elite members of a population
Prewriting	The first stage of the writing process, which may consist of a combination of outlining, diagramming, story boarding, and clustering.
Primacy effect	Information that we learn first is weighted more heavily than is information that comes later.
primary aging	aging that is irreversible and is due to genetic predisposition
primary circular reactions	the first two stages of Piaget’s sensorimotor intelligence which involve the infant’s responses to its own body
primary sex characteristics	the parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction, including the vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis
Primary sources	Firsthand sources of information.
Primary support	The major points a writer chooses to expand on in their thesis. It is the most important information a writer uses to argue their point of view.
Primatology	Study of primates, i.e., monkeys, apes, prosimians, etc.
Priming	A technique in which information is temporarily brought into memory through exposure to situational events.
Principle of Association	when remains of the past are in close proximity to each other, they likely date to the same time period (see Chapter 1)
Principle of Superposition	in a sequence of undisturbed strata, the overlying layer is younger than the one below it (see Chapter 1)
Principle of Uniformitarianism	an approach used to make inferences from the archaeological record that states that processes occurring in the present were also occurring in the past (see Chapter 1)
Principles of Citing	In MLA format, the hierarchical rules for creating works cited entries.
Prisoner’s dilemma game	A laboratory simulation that models a social dilemma in which the goals of the individual compete with the goals of another individual (or sometimes with a group of other individuals).
Private acceptance	Real change in opinions on the part of the individual.
private speech	speech that a child says aloud, but which is not meant to be part of communication with anyone else
probanza de mérito	A "proof of merit" written by prospective Spanish explorers to convince the crown of the importance and possible rewards of their proposed expeditions.
Procedural fairness	Beliefs about the fairness (or unfairness) of the procedures used to distribute available rewards among parties.
Process gain	When groups work better than we would expect, given the individuals who form them.
Process loss	Is an outcome in situations in which groups perform more poorly than we would expect, given the characteristics of the members of the group.
Processing fluency	The ease with which we can process information in our environments.
processual archaeology	archaeology focused on scientific understanding of the past; it stressed adaptation and change over time (process), also called the New Archaeology, championed by American archaeologist Lewis Binford
Proclamation of 1763	A British law that forbade colonial settlements west of the Appalachians.
productive potential	the amount of biomass in an area that can be used for human consumption
Productivity	New words or sentences that others can understand can be generated.
prognathism	Jutting forward of the lower face.
Progressive Era	A period in U.S. history between 1890 and 1920 in which social activism and political reform were the motivating factors. Progressive activists tended to be middle-class reformers and politicians who sought rational and scientific solutions for prominent social issues. Ending political(...)
projectile point	generic word for the tip of a weapon such as an arrowhead, stone atlatl point, or spear head
Proofreading	Reviewing a paper for general consistency and clarity.
Prose poem	The prose poem, which can be any length, isn’t broken into verse, but contains many of the elements of poetry: figures of speech, musical language, internal rhyme, repetition, condensed syntax, and imagery.
Prosody	The musical patterns of language.
provenience	the physical coordinates of an archaeological specimen (see Chapter 2)
proximity	a term for physical nearness which been found to be a significant factor in the development of relationships
proximodistal	Development that occurs from the center or core of the body in an outward direction
pruning	the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die
psychodynamic perspective	The perspective that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control
psychological abuse	aggressive behavior that is intended to control someone else
psychological death	when a dying person begins to accept death and to withdraw from others and regress into the self
Psychological reactance	A strong motivational state that prevents conformity.
psychosexual stages	Freud’s oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages
psychosocial theory	The theory that emphasizes the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development
puberty	the period of rapid growth and sexual development that begins in adolescence
Public conformity	Is a superficial change in behavior (including the public expression of opinions) that is not accompanied by an actual change in one’s private opinion.
Public goods	Benefits that are shared by a community at large and that everyone in the group has access to, regardless of whether or not they have personally contributed to the creation of the goods.
Pueblo Bonito	In northern New Mexico, within Chaco Canyon, Pueblo Bonito is the region's largest great house occupied by Ancestral Puebloans from 828 to 1126 CE.
Pueblo Bonito	D-shaped Great House at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico
Pueblo Revolt	Also known as Po'pay's rebellion, it was a combined uprising of the Pueblos of New Mexico against the Spanish in 1680. It was the only successful Native American rebellion against a European power.
Pure line	A line of poetry that adheres to a pattern the poem has undertaken.
Purpose	The reason the writer composes the writing.
push factor	Used as a term to describe migration of humans, push factors are things that compel people to migrate to another location or geography. They can be unfavorable living factors.
Puyé Cliff Dwellings	These abandoned ruins are located in Santa Clara Canyon near Española, New Mexico. Pueblo Indians lived in the area where they hunted game and cultivated food between 900 to 1580 CE.
Qualitative	An approach that typically involves close description e.g., interviews about genocide
qualitative	refers to observations that are not measurable, descriptive in nature
qualitative research	Theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants, who answer open-ended questions
Qualitative visuals	Present images that appear tot he audience's emotions
Qualities	pitch, duration, and volume.
quality of life	the general well-being of individuals and societies, including life satisfaction, physical health, family, education, employment, wealth, safety, security, freedom, religious beliefs, and the environment
Quantitative	An approach that involves measurement of some kind
quantitative	refers to observations that are measurable
quantitative genetics	Scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms
quantitative research	Involves numerical data that are quantified using statistics to understand and report what has been studied
Quantitative visuals	Present data graphically to logically appeal to the audience.
Quatrain	A stanza comprised of four lines.
Querétaro Protocol	The Querétaro Protocol was the final document signed that concluded the U.S.-Mexican War with the United States appropriating nearly half of the Mexican territory.
quid	chewed up plant fibers (see Chapter 2)
quipu	An Inca administrative tool using a system of knots of different colors to detail various records like trade, agricultural productivity, war, and general history.
Quotation	A group of words, usually three or more, that are borrowed from another writer or speaker. The use of quotation marks signals , to the reader, that this text is not the writer's original thought.
rachis	holds the seed onto the plant
radiocarbon dating	a technique used to date archaeological remains based on the decay of the radioactive isotope of carbon called carbon-14 (see Chapter 2 and videos)
Ralph D. Abernathy	Ralph D. Abernathy was born in 1926 and made a career as a Baptist minister. Alongside Martin Luther King Jr., he organized the historic Montgomery bus boycotts in 1955.
rancherías	A Spanish term meaning a small rural community. In the United States, ranchería is used to define native villages and/or ranchers' workmens quarters.
Random assignment to conditions	Determining separately for each participant which condition he or she will experience through a random process.
rapatriate	The process of returning a person to their native land of origin or citizenship.
Realistic group conflict	When groups are in competition for objectively scarce resources.
Recall	A procedure in which voters can remove and elected politician before the end of the electoral term.
Reception	The manner in which the audience receives the message conveyed.
Reciprocal altruism	The idea that, if we help other people now, they will return the favor should we need their help in the future.
reciprocal determinism	The interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us
Reciprocal self-disclosure	The tendency to communicate frequently, without fear of reprisal, and in an accepting and empathetic manner.
Reciprocity	The mutual exchange of favors or goods.
reciprocity	the understanding that changing one quality of an object can be compensated for by changes in another quality of that object
reciprocity	we are more likely to like someone if they feel the same way toward us
Reciprocity norm	Is a social norm reminding us that we should follow the principles of reciprocal altruism.
red ocher	a red mineral pigment; also called red ochre (see Chapter 3)
Referendum	Legislative process by which measures proposed or passed by a legislative body can be sent to the vote of the electorate for approval or rejection.
Reflection	The sense and interpretation that a writer makes of the events that transpire in a memoir.
reflexes	the inborn, behavioral patterns that develop during uterine life and are fully present at birth. These are involuntary movements (not learned) or actions that are essential for a newborn’s survival immediately after birth and include: sucking, swallowing, blinking, urinating, hiccuping, and(...)
Reglamento de 1772	The Reglamento de 1772 was a set of legislation based on Enlightenment reasoning to solve the problems Spain faced in its northern frontier. It concluded that native hostility and the settling population's combat unpreparedness needed addressing, leading to increased military spending in the region.
Reies López Tijerina	A spokesman for Mexican Americans and Hispanics, in the 1960s 1970s Tijerina lead the movement to restore New Mexico land grants to the ancestors of the original owners.
Reiterate	Say something again or a number of times, typically for emphasis or clarity.
relative dating	dates that refer to the age of something relative to something else. That is, a relative date tells you whether something happened before or after something else (see Chapter 2)
relativism	understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge—it’s all relative to other factors
relativistic thinking	thinking that understands the relative or situational nature of circumstances
reliability	When something yields consistent results
Religion	An institution that is widely shared, involves belief in a supernatural or cosmic order, and is supported by symbols and symbolic behavior.
René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle	Cavalier was a Frenchman who explored the Great Lakes, the Mississippi River, and the Gulf of Mexico, laying claims to Louisiana for the French crown, which effectively separated New Mexico and Spanish Florida.
repartimiento	Spanish colonial labor system that forced natives to perform low-paying or unpaid harsh, manual labor. While it's not slavery since the native workers aren't owned or purchased, they were subject to similar cruel conditions and long hours.
repatriate	The process of returning a person to their native land of origin or citizenship.
repatriation	return of archaeological material to an affiliated tribal nation under NAGPRA
Replication	The repeating of research.
Report	A document that records and conveys information to readers in a clear, concise, and visually appealing manner
representational art	art that resembles something in the physical world
representational art	art that looks like something recognizable in the world by other people; much of the art of the Upper Paleolithic is representational; horses at Lascaux Cave are examples of representational art (see Chapter 3)
Representativeness heuristic	Occurs when we base our judgments on information that seems to represent, or match, what we expect will happen while ignoring more informative base-rate information.
requerimiento	A requirement, or demand, was a practice carried out by Spanish conquistadors that involved reading a declaration of war to the natives before attacking them. These documents commanded the natives to submit to the King, Pope, and Christian God.
rescate	The Spanish word for "rescue" that also refers to Native Americans being "rescued" from their communities to work as house servants.
Research	Diligent inquiry or examination to seek or revise facts, principles, theories, applications, et cetera; laborious or continued search after truth.
research design	The strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information; dictates which methods are used and how
Research hypothesis	A statement about the relationship between the variables of interest and about the specific direction of that relationship.
Research Paper	A substantial piece of academic writing, usually done as a requirement for a class, in which the author independently researches a topic and writes a description of the research findings.
residential hierarchy	refers to differences in the location and elaboration of houses
response inhibition	the ability to recognize a potential behavior and stop the initiation of an undesired behavior
retablos	Devotional paintings common in Latin America that derive their symbols from Roman Catholicism.
retainer	servant or attendant
Reverse outline	An outline that is created after the initial prewriting process.
reversibility	Objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition, typically observed during the concrete operational stage
reversibility	the understanding that some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state
Rhetorical fallacies	Fallacies are reasoning errors, which abuse the power of logical, emotional, or ethical appeals.
Rhetorical mode	Rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse) describe the variety, conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of language-based communication, particularly writing and speaking. Four of the most common rhetorical modes and their purpose are narration, description, exposition, and(...)
Rhetorical questions	A rhetorical question is a question that you ask without expecting an answer. The question might be one that does not have an answer. It might also be one that has an obvious answer but you have asked the question to make a point, to persuade or for literary effect.
Rhetorical situation	Circumstances under which you communicate, which includes your purpose, audience, tone, genre, and medium of communication (online, face-to-face, text message, formal paper, etc.)
Rhetorical vectors	Diagonal lines throughout an image that create action
Rhyme Scheme	Clear end-rhyming patterns in a poem.
Richard Feynman	Feynman, theoretical physicist, joined Hans Bethe's team in Los Alamos for the Manhattan Project. He and Bethe developed the Bethe-Feynman formula for calculating the yield of a fission bomb.
rico nuevomexicano	Spanish for "rich New Mexicans."
Rio Arriba	During the Spanish era, the New Mexico colony was divided into two general regions: Rio Arriba (the upper river) and Rio Abajo (the lower river). Rio Arriba included all of the New Mexico territory north of Santa Fe along the Rio Grande.
Rio Bravo del Norte	Also know as the Rio Grande River.
Rite of Passage	Rituals that ensure a transformation from one life stage to another life stage have a special name.
Roanoke	Situated in present-day North Carolina, Roanoke was an English attempt in the late 16th Century to establish a permanent settlement in the Americas. However, its colonists disappeared after the Anglo-Spanish War for no reason, earning it the nickname "Lost Colony."
Robert E. Lee	Commander of the Confederate Armies, Lee was a skillful leader, who in spite of some miraculous wins on the battlefield, eventually surrendered to the Union thereby ending the U.S. Civil War.
Roberto Archuleta	Roberto Archuleta was the founder of El Teatro Norteño. El Teatro Norteño presented famous acts and actors, one of the most known was Luis Valdez which associated matters relevant to New Mexico.
rock shelter	a rocky overhang (see Chapter 3)
Rodolfo “Corky” González	Rodolfo “Corky” González was a Mexican American civil rights activist. He is considered a founder of the Chicano Movement. His poem Yo Soy Joaquín shared his view of what is was to be Chicano: a cosmic combination of conflicting American, European, and Mexican identities. Chicanos could not(...)
Rogerian argument	Named for its creator, Carl Rogers, a type of argument that aims for true compromise between two positions.
role confusion	a situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is. (Sometimes called identity diffusion or role diffusion)
Ron Aguirre	In 1959, Ron Aguirre became one of the first customizers to use the hydraulic pump in cars to change ride height by the push of a button.
Rough Riders	Founded by Theodore Roosevelt, Rough Riders fought in the Spanish American War. Many New Mexicans volunteered in the Rough Riders or the Cowboy Cavalry.
Rough Riders reunions	After the war, the first reunion was held in 1899. Rough Riders met every year, until 1967, at the Hotel Castañeda in Las Vegas, New Mexico. Annual reunions ended when the only member left attended alone.
Roundel	The roundel is an English form consisting of eleven lines in three stanzas with no set meter. The first part of line one repeats at the end of the first stanza and again as the last line of poem. The half line also forms the rhyme pattern and is indicated here as R for “refrain”: A B A R–B A(...)
Rufina Marie Laws	In the early 1990s, Laws adamantly opposed Wendell Chino's proposal to bring nuclear waste to Mescalero tribal lands. At one point, she gave a rousing speech that warned against the possibility of radioactivity in the local rivers and forests. For her efforts, she was harassed and her life(...)
Salient	People who are salient attract our attention when we see something or someone with them.
Salvador de Guerra	One of the many Spanish missionaries in New Mexico enforcing punishments upon the natives for idol worshipping and other non-Christian religious beliefs.
Salvage Anthropology	Attempt at documenting ways of life disappearing the face of colonialism and development.
Sam Hitt	Leader of the Forest Guardians, an environmental group which protested logging on federal land in New Mexico.
Samuel Axtell	Samuel Axtell was appointed Govenor of the New Mexico Territory in 1875. His tenure as Govenor was plagued with corruption, fraud and mismanagement. No charges were filed against him and he was later appointed Chief Justice of the New Mexico Territorial Supreme Court in 1882.
San Antonio de Béxar	San Antonio de Béxar was a Spanish fort built in modern-day San Antonio, Texas. Its purpose was to keep French and English aggression out of the surrounding region. It quickly became a political and economic center in Spanish Texas.
San José Experimental School	Established by Lloyd Tireman in the South Valley of Albuquerque in 1930, the school was modeled after the Mexican government's rural cultural mission program.
San Juan de los Caballeros	The Spanish name for the Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo.
San Juan de Ulúa	San Juan de Ulúa is a complex, near Veracruz, Mexico, of prisons, fortresses, and at one time a palace. In 1519, Cortés met with Aztec representative from the empire of Moctezuma I.
sanctity state	a time in which the child is contemplative, quiet, or prayerful. It is often only a very brief part of the day
sandwich generation	a cohort of people charged with the dual responsibility of looking after elderly parents while raising their own children
Santa Cruz de la Cañada	Santa Cruz de la Cañada is a village lying in the Galisteo Basin at more than 5,000 feet above sea level. At first is was a Pueblo community, but then was established as a Hispanic community after Diego de Vargas's reconquest.
Santa Fe Ring	The Santa Fe Ring was a late 19th and early 20th century influential group of attorneys and land speculators who, through unethical and corrupt business practices, amassed large holdings of land and money. The "ring" applied to most Republican state politicians in Santa Fe, New Mexico who held(...)
Santa Fe Trail	The Santa Fe Trail was a business and transportation route between Franklin, Missouri and Santa Fe, New Mexico. It opened up commerce, travel, and economic development through central United States.
santero	A santero is an artisan who makes saint figures, usually out of wood or ivory.
Santiago Abreú	Santiago Abreú was deputy to the Congress in Mexico City 1825-1826 and served as governor of New Mexico from 1832 to 1833.
Sapawe	The Sapawe Pueblo occupied a 20-acre area perched over El Rito River from 1350 to 1550 CE. Upon contact with the Spanish, about 2,000 people were living at this Tewa ancestral site.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis	The idea that the structure of a language influences thought.
sarcopenia	the technical term for the loss of muscle tissue and function as we age
sarcophagus	box-like stone receptacle for the dead
scaffolding	A process in which adults or capable peers model or demonstrate how to solve a problem, and then step back, offering support as needed
scale of analysis	in archaeology, refers to the idea that material culture can be studied using both fine-grained (what was in this pot?) and coarse-grained approaches (what was the nature of interaction between the pre-Hispanic Southwest and Mesoamerica?)
Scansion	The process of scanning lines of poetry to mark stressed and unstressed beats and determine the poem’s pattern of meter and length.
scatterplot	A plot or mathematical diagram consisting of data points that represent two variables
Scene	The place where an incident in real life or fiction occurs or occurred.
schema	a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations
schemas	An existing framework for an object or concept
Sears, Roebuck, & Co.	This early mail order merchandise company benefited from the U.S. expansion to the west. The first catalog was published in 1894 and shipped, via the U.S. Postal Service, everything from A to Z to all parts of the United States.
secondary aging	refers to changes that are caused by illness or disease
secondary circular reactions	stages 3 and 4 of Piaget’s sensorimotor intelligence which involves the infant’s responses to objects and people
secondary content analysis	Archival research, involves analyzing information that has already been collected or examining documents or media to uncover attitudes, practices or preferences
secondary education	the period after primary education (elementary or grade school) and before tertiary education (college). It usually occurs from about ages 12 to 18, although there is some variation by school and by nation
secondary sex characteristics	physical traits that are not directly involved in reproduction but that indicate sexual maturity, such as a man’s beard or a woman’s breasts
Secondary sources	Discuss, interpret, analyze, consolidate, or otherwise rework information from primary sources.
Secular Rituals	Activities that often symbolic, involve special words, objects, and clothing, are transformative, but don’t involve the supernatural.
secure attachment (type B)	a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of their caregiver
secure base	a parental presence that gives children a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings
Sedentism	Living in one location for an extended period of time.
sedentism	refers to living in permanent settlements
selection, optimization, compensation (SOC) theory	theory which argues that the declines experienced at this time are not simple or absolute losses. Or, rather, they need not be. Baltes argues that life is a series of adaptations and that the selection of fewer goals, optimizing our personal and social resources to attain them, and then(...)
selective attention	the process by which one focuses on one stimulus while tuning out another; this ability improves during adolescence
selective attrition	Certain groups of individuals may tend to drop out more frequently resulting in the remaining participants longer being representative of the whole population
Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC)	a strategy for improving health and well being in older adults and a model for successful aging
self-actualization	According to humanistic theory, the realizing of one’s full potential can include creative expression, a quest for spiritual enlightenment, the pursuit of knowledge, or the desire to contribute to society. For Maslow, it is a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest(...)
self-awareness	a person’s realization that they are a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people
self-concept	the idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel
self-concept	our individual perceptions of our behavior, abilities, and unique characteristics. It is essentially a mental picture of who you are as a person. For example, beliefs such as “I am a good friend” or “I am a kind person” are part of an overall self-concept
Self-concern	The motivation to protect and enhance the self and the people who are psychologically close to us.
self-esteem	considered an important component of emotional health, self-esteem encompasses both self-confidence and self-acceptance. It is the way individuals perceive themselves and their self-value
self-flagellation	The act of whipping oneself and causing oneself extreme pain as a religious ritual.
Self-fulfilling prophecy	Is a process that occurs when our expectations about others lead us to behave toward those others in ways that make those expectations come true.
self-fulfilling prophecy	the tendency to act in a way that makes what you predict will happen come true
Self-handicapping	When we make statements or engage in behaviors that help us create a convenient external attribution for potential failure.
Self-perception	occurs when we use our own behavior as a guide to help us determine our own thoughts and feelings.
Self-report measures	Measures in which individuals are asked to respond to questions posed by an interviewer or on a questionnaire.
Self-serving attributions	Attributions that help us meet our desires to see ourselves positively.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation.
senescence	biological aging and the gradual deterioration of functional abilities
sensation	the interaction of information with the sensory receptors
sensorimotor intelligence	Piaget’s term for the way infants think (by using their senses and motor skills) during the first stage of cognitive development
sensorimotor stage	The stage in which children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior, lasts from birth to about 2 years old
sensorineural hearing loss	failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain
sensory memory	the first component of the memory system where information comes in through the 5 senses and is processed if the mind believes that the information is important
Sentence variety	The creation of sentences of various lengths and types.
Sentinelese	An isolated forager people living on North Sentinel Island in the Andaman Islands
separation anxiety	fear or distress caused by the departure of familiar significant others; most obvious between 9-14 months
Sephardic Jews	An ethnic division of Jews that trace their ancestry back to Israelite immigrants who settled in the Iberian Peninsula at the turn of the first millennium.
Septameter	A seven-foot line.
Septet	A stanza containing seven lines.
sequential research design	Combines aspects of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, but also adding new cohorts at different times of measurement; allows for analyses to consider effects of age, cohort, time of measurement, and socio-historical change
Serial Monogamy	Having one legal spouse at a time.
Serotonin	A neurotransmitter that influences mood, appetite, and sleep and that reduces aggression.
serotonin	“calming chemical,” a neurotransmitter in the brain involved with the regulation of mood and behavior; serotonin levels increase in the limbic system during adolescence
Sestina	The sestina consists of five sestets culminating in a final tercet called an envoi, also called a tornada. The six words that end each of the lines in the first stanza repeat throughout the poem in the following pattern: 1. A B C D E F 2. F A E B D C 3. C F D A B E 4. E C B F A D 5. D E A(...)
Setting	Where a story takes place.
settlement pattern	refers the place, duration, and type of locales where people live
Seven Cities of Cíbola	The search for the rumored Seven Cities of Gold, located in the deserts of the American Southwest, spawned several failed Spanish expeditions and increased hostilities with Pueblo peoples.
Severino Martínez	As Governor of the Taos Pueblo, in the 1950s, Martínez began the 62 year effort to return the Blue Lake territory to the Taos Pueblo.
sex	a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females
Sestet	A stanza containing six lines.
sexual abuse	the act of forcing someone to participate in a sex act against his or her will
Sexual Division of Labor	When tasks are divided by sex or gender
sexual orientation	a term that refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to others of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes
sexually transmitted infections (STIs)	diseases that are spread by sexual contact, including syphilis, gonorrhea, genital herpes, chlamydia, and HIV/AIDS
Shakespearian sonnet	Comprised of an octet and a sextet, this sonnet is composed in iambic pentameter and rhymes A B A B–C D C D–E F E F–G G. The volta appears either between lines eight and nine or between lines twelve and thirteen.
Shaman	Part-time religious practitioners that interact with the spirit world. They often act as healers and cause or prevent transformations.
Shifting Agriculture	Practice by horticulturalists of periodically moving farm plots to allow them to rejuvenate
Signal phrase	An introduction that introduces material that summarizes someone else's work or reports someone else's findings.
Significance	Statements that reveal the importance of the analysis to the writer's personal and/or cultural concerns.
silver-fox experiments	experiments on wild Russian foxes that showed that selecting for docility produces changes in morphology; suggests that selection for docility in wolves could have produced the domesticated dog
Simile	A comparison that uses like or as, as in something inside me / rising explosive as my parakeet bursting / from its cage (Bruce Snider, “Chemistry”).
Simultaneous submissions	A term used to refer to poems in the submission process that are under consideration by multiple publishers at one time.
Sir Francis Drake	Drake was an English sea captain who completed the second circumnavigation of the world. The Spanish regarded him as a threat and King Felipe II offered a reward of 20,000 ducats (USD $6.5mil in today's money) for his capture. He also led the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588.
site	spatial clusters of material culture (see Chapter 2)
Situational attribution	To determine that the behavior was caused primarily by the situation.
Slash and Burn	Practice of cutting and burning vegetation to increase soil productivity.
slave revolution	A slave uprising in the French colony of Saint Domingue in 1791 led by Toussaint L'Overture resulted in the independence of the island of Hispaniola, creating the Dominican Republic and Haiti as two separate countries.
Snaketown	largest and best known Hohokam site; located in the Phoenix Basin
SNP	A change in a single DNA nucleotide base, single nucleotide polymorphism.
Social categorization	The natural cognitive process by which we place individuals into social groups.
Social cognition	The mental activity that relates to social activities and helps us meet the goal of understanding and predicting the behavior of ourselves and others.
social-cognitive learning theory	Learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model
Social conventional morality	Norms that are seen as appropriate within a culture but that do not involve behaviors that relate to doing good or doing harm toward others.
Social creativity	The use of strategies that allow members of low-status groups to perceive their group as better than other groups.
social death	when others begin to withdraw from someone who is terminally ill or has been diagnosed with a terminal illness
Social dilemma	A situation in which the goals of the individual conflict with the goals of the group.
Social dominance orientation (SDO)	Is a personality variable that refers to the tendency to see and to accept inequality among different groups.
social exchange theory	people try to maximize rewards and minimize costs in social relationships
Social facilitation	The tendency to perform tasks better or faster in the presence of others.
Social fairness norms	Beliefs about how people should be treated fairly.
Social Hierarchy	Group members are ranked
social hierarchy	difference in wealth and power within a society
Social identity	The positive self-esteem that we get from our group memberships.
Social impact	The increase in the amount of conformity that is produced by adding new members to the majority group.
Social influence	The process through which other people change our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and through which we change theirs.
Social inhibition	The tendency to perform tasks more poorly or slower in the presence of others.
Social neuroscience	The study of how our social behavior both influences and is influenced by the activities of our brain.
Social norms	The ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and perceived by them as appropriate.
Social power	The ability of a person to create conformity even when the people being influenced may attempt to resist those changes.
Social psychology	The scientific study of how we feel, think, and behave toward the people around us and how our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are influenced by those people.
Social responsibility norm	The social responsibility norm tells us that we should try to help others who need assistance, even without any expectation of future paybacks.
Social Science	Disciplines interested in general explanations about human societies often through observation and systematic analysis
Social situation	The people with whom we interact every day.
social smile	a smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth
Social support	Refers to the comfort that we receive from the people around us—for instance, our family, friends, classmates, and coworkers.
Social support	The approval, assistance, advice, and comfort that we receive from those with whom we have developed stable positive relationships.
sociocultural theory	Vygotsky’s theory that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture
socioemotional selectivity theory	theory associated with the developmentalist Laura Carestensen which posits a shift at this time in the life course, caused by a shift in time horizons. Time left in our lives is now shorter than time previously spent. Consciously, or sub-consciously, this influences a greater unwillingness to(...)
socioemotional selectivity theory	theory that as time horizons shrink, people become increasingly selective, investing greater resources in emotionally meaningful goals, activities, and relationships
Soledád Chávez de Chacón	Chávez de Chacon served as Secretary of State from 1922 to 1927, the first woman to hold statewide elected office in New Mexico. In 1924, she was one of the first women to act as a state governor due to a stipulation in the New Mexico Constitution that requires either the Lieutenant Governor(...)
Sonnet	Although there are several versions of the sonnet, each has fourteen lines and contains a volta, or a turn in thought, which can sometimes be indicated with the words “but” or “yet.” In contemporary poetry it has become common for poets to compose sonnets with differing rhyme or meter, or with(...)
Sororate	System where a man marries his dead wife’s sister.
Source	The person, place or thing from which something (information, goods, etc. ) comes or is acquired
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex	shared religious iconography of the Mississippian Tradition
Spanish Civil War	The Spanish Civil War was between Spanish Republican groups loyal to the democratic Spanish Republic versus the Nationalists, a fascist group led by General Francisco Franco. The Nationalists won the war, which led the nation into a social revolution.
Spanish-Cuban-American War	The Spanish-Cuban-American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States over U.S. aide and assistance to Cuba during their war for independance against Spanish rule.
Special Engineer Detachment	U.S. Army soldiers, with technical and scientific skills, were assigned to serve in the Manhattan Project labs to assist the nuclear scientists solve problems in the development of the atomic bomb.
Spenserian sonnet	This sonnet modifies the Petrarchan to contain a rhyme scheme of A B A B–B C B C–C D C D–E E.
spermarche	a boy’s first ejaculation of sperm. Erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production. Spermarche may occur during sleep (nocturnal emission or “wet dream”) or via direct stimulation
Spiro Agnew	Spiro Theodore Agnew served as the 39th Vice President of the US under President Richard Nixon from 1969-1973.
Split couplet	Composed of two lines, the split couplet contains a first line in iambic tetrameter and a second in iambic dimeter; the two lines should rhyme. Another variation is to write the first line in iambic pentameter.
Spondee	ˉ ˉ Two equal stresses.
Spontaneous message processing	Accepting a persuasion attempt because we focus on whatever is most obvious or enjoyable, without much attention to the message itself.
stage-crisis view	theory associated with Levinson (and Erikson before) that each life stage is characterized by a fundamental conflict(s) which must be resolved before moving on to the next. Each stage has its challenges which are resolved, instigating a period of transition which sets the stage for the next
stagnation	a feeling of a disconnect from wider society experience by those 40-65 who fail to develop the attitude of care associated with generativity
Stanza	A unit of poetry consisting of lines and bordered by blank space; similar to a paragraph in prose.
stelae	upright stone monuments; singular stela
Stephen B. Elkins	Elkins served as a Congressional Delegate for the Territory of New Mexico, Founder and president of the Santa Fe National Bank, President of the Maxwell Land Grant Company, West Virginia Senator, and as the 38th Secretary of War. Elkins was very influential and managed to patent Spanish and(...)
Stephen F. Austin	Stephen F. Austin, son of Moses Austin, was the man who was held responsible for start the actions that led Texas to have their independence.
Stephen H. Long	A railway engineer by trade, Long is most noted for his expeditions and explorations of the Missouri and Platte Rivers.
Stephen Watts Kearny	A U.S. brigadier general who during the Mexican American war lead an army of volunteers and his unit, and in a bloodless campaign to capture Santa Fe in 1846.
Stereotype	The positive or negative beliefs that we hold about the characteristics of social groups.
Stereotype threat	Performance decrements that are caused by the knowledge of cultural stereotypes.
Sterling Price	As military governor of the New Mexico, Price ended the Taos Revolt.
Stock phrases	Sayings repeated by a person or group that then becomes associated with that group. Stock phrases can be problematic in academic writing when they are used without fully considering their implications. Also, like cliches, stock phrases can lose their significance when they are re-used often.
Strait of Anián	The Spanish thought the Strait of Anián was a Northwest Passage, a sea route through the Arctic from Europe to Asia. They repeatedly searched for it, hoping to find a way to the Spice Trade in China and India.
stranger wariness	fear is often associated with the presence of strangers where an infant expresses concern or a look of fear while clinging to a familiar person
Strata	Layers of rock or soil or sediment.
strata	layers of cultural and natural debris visible in the side of an excavation (see Chapter 1)
street corner state	state in which the child is playful, energetic, excited, and expresses personal opinions, feelings, and beliefs
Stress	The syllables in a line of poetry that are emphasized.
structures	remains of houses, ceremonial chambers, and other examples of architecture (see Chapter 2)
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee	SNCC, organized in 1960, was instrumental in the Civil Rights Movement in helping dismantle segregation in the southern states.
student state	this state is one in which the student focuses on a task or tries to stay focused on a task, is passive, compliant, and often frustrated
Style	The way writing is created to respond to the audience, context, and purpose. A writers' style can be created by the use of their individual word choice, voice, and sentence construction.
Subsistence	Ways of obtaining food from one's environment
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)	a situation in which a seemingly healthy infant, usually between 2 and 6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies unexpectedly while asleep
suicidal ideation	thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones
suicide	the act of intentionally causing one’s own death
Suma	The Suma were a native group of nomadic hunter-gatherers that lived around northeastern Mexico and the Rio Grande valley. They were wiped out to extinction by disease and eventually absorbed by neighboring tribes.
Summary	A condensed version of the background or main ideas of a text
Sun Dagger	an astronomical feature on Fajada Butte at Chaco Canyon consisting of sandstone slabs and spiral petroglyphs used to mark the solstices, equinoxes and perhaps other astronomical events
Sunghir or Sungir	an Upper Paleolithic site in Russia dating to ca. 28,000 B.P.; the site is famous for three human burials with elaborate grave goods including thousands of mammoth ivory beads (see Chapter 3)
Sunset Crater	volcano in Arizona that erupted 1060-1080s leaving a layer of ash on archaeological sites; also appears in tree-rings
superego	The part of the self that acts as our conscience, telling us how we should behave
Supernatural	Powers or phenomena not subject to the laws of nature.
Supporting points	The details, facts, and explanations that develop and clarify the main point.
survey	Asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects
survivor guilt	mental condition that occurs when a person perceives themselves to have done wrong by surviving a traumatic event when others did not
Sympathetic Magic	A type of magic transforms through similarity, i.e., hunting magic.
synapses	the intersection between the axon of one neuron to the dendrites of another neuron
synaptic pruning	the selective elimination of non-essential synapses and the strengthening of important neural connections
synaptic pruning	connections in the brain that are not used much are lost so that other connections can be strengthened; this pruning happens with prefrontal cortex connections in adolescence
syncretism	the tendency to think that if two events occur simultaneously, one caused the other
Synecdoche	When a part of something symbolizes the whole, or the whole of something symbolizes the part, as in All hands on deck (where hands stands in for men), or The whole world loves you (where whole world represents only a small number of its human population).
Synonym	A word with a similar meaning.
Synonyms	A word or phrase with a meaning that is the same as, or very similar to, another word or phrase.
Syntax	The way in which words and phrases are crafted and combined in sentences.
Synthesis	The formation of something complex or coherent by combining simpler things.
Taboo	A kind of negative mana that can be harmful.
tacit knowledge	pragmatic or practical and learned through experience rather than explicitly taught
Taghairm	Sometimes interpreted as "spiritual echo," or calling up the dead, was an ancient Scottish mode of divination.
Taíno	Known to the Spanish as the Arawaks, the Taíno were one of the Caribbean's major indigenous groups. Their culture became extinct due to disease and violence brought upon by Spanish colonizers.
talud-tablero	architectural style consists of a sloped face followed by a vertical face supported by stone slabs
Tamaulipas	Tamaulipas is one of the 31 states of Mexico. In the 15th century, Moctezuma ruled over much of the area. Later it was conquered by Cortés, who established the first Spanish settlement in the area named Tampico.
Tanka	This Japanese form, which focuses primarily on nature or strong emotions, consists of five unrhymed, non-metrical lines with the syllable count 5 7 5 7 7.
Tanoan	A group of languages spoken by the Native Americans of New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.
Taos Revolt	In 1847, an uprising of Pueblo people and Mexicans against the occupation of the United States earned the title of the Taos Revolt.
Taos Society of Artists	Founded in 1915, the Taos Society of Artists' members developed forms of visual arts as a cooperative. The organization lead Taos to the forefront as an international arts center.
Tarahumara	The Tarahumara are a Native American group from northwestern Mexico who had been in constant conflict with the Spanish since the 17th century. Their hostility led to the burning and destruction of several missions and monasteries in the region.
teacher-counselor parent	pays a lot of attention to expert advice on parenting and believes that as long as all of the steps are followed, the parent can rear a perfect child
tell	a mound created by centuries of human occupation; Tell Abu Hureyra in Syria is an exmaple
temperament	inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation, typically measured by the person’s responses to the environment
temple mounds	earthen platform mounds atop which were built ceremonial structures; known from Mississippian sites like Cahokia
Temple of Inscriptions	masonry Maya pyramid at Palenque in Chiapas, Mexico where Lord Pacal was interred; the longest known Maya inscription; still being deciphered
Temple of the Feathered Serpent	masonry pyramid of Teotihuacán in Mexico containing sacrifices of warriors
temporal theory of pitch perception	sound’s frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron
Tenochtitlán	The capital of the Aztec Empire was built on an island in the center of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico. Tenochtitlán would go on to become the largest city in New Spain and later transform in modern-day Mexico City.
teosinte	the wild progenitor (ancestor) of maize
Teotihuacán	huge multi-ethnic city located in the Valley of Mexico (ca. 100 BC-AD 700); sixth largest city in the world of its time
teratogen	Any agent which can cause a birth defect
Tercet	A stanza containing three lines.
Terence V. Powderly	Powderly was an American labor leader and politician who led the Knights of Labor from 1879-1893.
Termite Fishing	Chimpanzees use modified probes to extract termites from nests
Terracing	Creating steps out of a hillside to create garden plots.
tertiary circular reactions	consist of actions (stage 5) and ideas (stage 6) where infants become more creative in their thinking
Testimony	Direct quotations from either an eyewitness or an expert witness.
Testosterone	The male sex hormone.
testosterone	the primary male sex hormone that plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as testes and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair. Females also produce testosterone, but at(...)
Tesuque Pueblo	Tewa-speaking Tesuque Pueblo is one of the Eight Northern Pueblos. Here, Fray Juan Pio's murder sparked the Pueblo Revolt.
Tetrameter	A four-foot line.
Texan-Santa Fe Expedition	The Texan-Santa Fe Expedition was a political, military, and commercial expedition designed to move trade from the Santa Fe Trail to Texas. Part of the expedition's purpose was to obtain jurisdiction of the Santa Fe area for Texas.
Texan-Santa Fe Expedition	The Texan-Santa Fe Expedition was a political, military, and commercial expedition designed to move trade from the Santa Fe Trail to Texas. Part of the expedition's purpose was to obtain jurisdiction of the Santa Fe area for Texas.
Than-Bauk	Also known as “Climbing Rhyme,” this Burmese form consists of three four-syllable lines, with rhyme falling on the fourth syllable of the first line, the third syllable of the second line, and the second syllable of the third line.
Theism	Belief in supreme deities.
Theme	The ultimate message the narrative is trying to express; it can either be explicit or implicit.
Theodore Roosevelt	Roosevelt served as the 26th U.S. President. Progressive leadership brought about the "Square Deal" for citizens. Roosevelt expanded the power of the National Parks Service and was second in command of the Rough Riders, under General Leonard Wood.
theory	A well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future observations
theory of evolution by natural selection	The process by which organisms change over time so that those with genes and behaviors better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off
theory of mind	the understanding that the mind holds people’s beliefs, desires, emotions, and intentions. One component of this is understanding that the mind can be tricked or that the mind is not always accurate
theory-of-mind (TOM)	Explains how children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own, develops during the preoperational stage
theory of multiple intelligences	Garner’s theory that there are many kinds of intelligence. The modern version of the theory recognizes 9 forms of intelligence
Thesaurus	A publication, usually in the form of a book, that provides synonyms (and sometimes antonyms) for the words of a given language.
Thesis	A claim or theory that must be supported with evidence to argue for or against a specific idea or position.
Thesis Statement	The main point of a paper; the idea of hypothesis a writer is trying to prove.
They/Their	The use of they instead of he or she was a conscious choice on the part of the instructors. For non-gender conforming people, the use of they allows for a third person pronoun usage. Some teachers may not be on board with this grammatical choice, even though grammar and language are always(...)
Third person	A writing perspective that uses “he/she/it.”
Thomas B. Catron	Thomas Catron arrived in New Mexico following the Civil War and he established a law practice in the territory. Through his adept manipulation of land grant laws and the desperation of many heirs, he was able to gain control of much of the territory's land and resources. At one point, he was(...)
Thomas Hart Benton	Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton was an ardent advocate of U.S. westward expansion in the 1830s and 1840s. In the Senate, he used his position of seniority and power to support initiatives that would allow the United States to claim territories between the Mississippi River and the(...)
Thomas Oliver Larkin	Larkin established a successful mercantile business in Monterey, Alta California, in the 1830s. Due to his desire to annex California to the United States, President Polk appointed him U.S. Consul. During the U.S.-Mexico War he received instructions from the State Department to encourage a(...)
Thoughtful message processing	Occurs when we think about how the message relates to our own beliefs and goals and involves our careful consideration of whether the persuasion attempt is valid or invalid.
Tiguex War	The Tiguex War was the first of a series of wars fought between Pueblo peoples and Francisco Vasquez de Coronado during the Spaniard's quest to find the Seven Cities of Cíbola.
Tik'al	Maya site located in the Petén Basin in Guatemala; one of the largest Maya urban centers; World Heritage Site
Tiny Fellion	Former state trooper and Deputy U.S. Marshall Fellion acted as a paid assassin in Española, New Mexico. He also placed an explosive device in the Albuquerque headquarters of La Alianza Federal de Mercedes.
Tit-for-tat strategy	Involves initially making a cooperative choice and then waiting to see what the other individuals do.
Tlaxcala	Tlaxcala is one of the Aztecs' antagonistic neighboring tribes which aided Cortés with soldiers during his conquest of the Aztec Empire.
Tolerated Theft	When the cost of defending a resource is more than the benefit of keeping it
Tollund Man	"bog body" preserved in a peat bog in Denmark, ca. 2100-2200 B.P. (see Chapter 2)
Tom Windes	Southwest wood specialist
Tomás Ortiz	Along with Diego de Archuleta and Pablo Montoya, Ortiz was one of the principal leaders of the Taos Revolt in late 1846 and early 1847.
Tomás Vélez Cachupín	The Spanish governor of New Mexico from 1749-1754, considered to be one of the best governors due to his openness and compassion towards the surrounding native tribes, encouraging free trade that led to a thriving economy in the region.
Tomasito	Tomasito was a member of Taos Pueblo who joined Pablo Montoya and others in the Taos Revolt. In January of 1847, he and Montoya killed Governor Bent in his home in town.
Tone	An attitude the speaker of a poem has toward the subject. It is represented in its musical qualities: pitch, duration, and volume.
Tool	An object used to modify the shape, condition, or location of another object
Topic sentences	A statement of the main idea of the paragraph in which it occurs.
Tornada	Also known as “envoi,” this is the final tercet of a sestina.
Toulminian argument	Named for its creator, Stephen Toulminian, includes three components: a claim, stated grounds to support the claim, and stated assumptions called warrents.
toxic stress	excessive stress that exceeds a child’s ability to cope, especially in the absence of supportive caregiving from adults
transductive reasoning	a failure in understanding cause and effect relationships which happens when a child reasons from specific to specific; drawing a relationship between two separate events that are otherwise unrelated
transgender	a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex
transient exuberance	the great, but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant’s brain during the first two years of life
Transitions	A word, phrase, sentence, or paragraph that clarifies how the writer's ideas are connected.
Treaty of 1868	The Treaty of 1868 was signed by the U.S. Government and Navajo Nation, ceasing hostilities between the two nations. In return, the Navajo had to return to the reservation, but would be provided with housing, education, and trade by the U.S. Government.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo	The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the U.S.- Mexican War in 1848.
Treaty of La Mesilla	The Treaty of La Mesilla concluded the Gadsden Purchase.
Treaty of Paris (1763)	The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years War, with France ceding many of its North American possessions to Britain, ushering in an era of British global dominance.
Treaty of Paris (1783)	The 1783 Treaty of Paris was a collection of treaties which ended the American Revolution signed by Britain on one side and the United States, France, and Spain on another.
Treaty of San Ildefonso	The Treaty of San Ildefonso returned Louisiana back to French rule.
Treaty of Velasco	The Treaty of Velasco was two treaties signed after the defeat of the Mexican Army at the Battle of San Jacinto (1836). The signing ended hostilities between Mexico and the United States, as well as recognized Texas' independence from Mexico.
Triangular model of love	An approach that suggests that there are different types of love and that each is made up of different combinations of cognitive and affective variables, specified in terms of passion, intimacy, and commitment
triarchic theory of intelligence	Sternberg’s theory that recognizes three forms of intelligence: academic, creative, and practical
Trimeter	A three-foot line
Trochee	΄ ˘ A heavy stress followed by a light stress.
Tropes	Words or phrases that point toward a figurative meaning.
trust vs. mistrust	Erikson’s first crisis of psychosocial development, during which infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their needs (food, comfort, attention) are met
twin studies	A behavior genetic research method that involves a comparison of the similarity of identical (monozygotic; MZ) and fraternal (dizygotic; DZ) twins
type 2 diabetes (T2D)	diabetes characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin primarily from obesity or lack of exercise
Tzolk'in	Maya religious calendar of 260 days
U.S. Consul	A political title for a official U.S. representative to a foreign country, usually aligned with an ambassador or an embassy. This should not be confused with an ambassador who represents the United States for the President.
Ultimate attribution errors	The tendency for people to make trait attributions in ways that benefit their ingroups, just as they make trait attributions that benefit themselves.
Ulysses S. Grant	Ulysses S. Grant started as a junior officer during the U.S.-Mexican War. He quickly moved through the ranks as a fearless soldier and master of logistics. He joined Zachary Taylor at Resaca de la Palma and General Winfield Scott to Mexico City. With the outbreak of the Civil War, Grant(...)
Umayyad Dynasty	The Umayyad Dynasty was the second of four Islamic Caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. Ruled from 661-750, it encompassed the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Persia at its greatest extent.
Unilineal Evolution	The erroneous idea that societies move through evolutionary stages from savagery to barbarism to civilization.
uninvolved parenting	parents who are disengaged from their children, do not make demands on their children, and are non-responsive
uninvolved parenting	parenting that is low in both support and demandingness
Unrealistic optimism	The tendency to be overly positive about the likelihood that negative things will occur to us and that we will be able to effectively cope with them if they do.
Upper Paleolithic	refers to a time period in Europe between about 40 kya and 10-12 kya that is marked by representational art, music, tailored clothing, organized settlements, complex tools, personal adornment, elaborate burial, and the atlatl (see Chapter 3)
urban militia from Abiquiú	Pedro Ignacio Gallego led the militia group that stood as a defense against the incursions of Utes, Apaches, Navajos, and Comanches near Abiquiú in the 1820s and 1830s. Following Mexican Independence, the former peace with indigenous peoples eroded due to the lack of subsidies for trade in the(...)
Ussen	Ussen is the Apaches' supreme deity and giver of life.
V. Gordon Childe	early archaeologist who argued that as the Pleistocene ended people began to closely observe plants and animals for the first time around oases, which led to domestication. This idea is no longer accepted for multiple reasons.
validity	When something yields accurate results
variables	Factors that change in value
Varna Necropolis	a site in Bulgaria along the Black Sea dating to ca. 6,000 B.P. It is known for its dense concentration of gold and copper objects in burials. The site represents very early use of gold and copper.
vecino	During the late Spanish Colonial period hispano residents of New Mexico began to call themselves "vecinos" or "vecinas," a word that means "neighbor." As implied in the term itself, this label marked a person's place in their local village community.
vegetative state	the cerebral cortex no longer registers electrical activity but the brain stem continues to be active
Venus of Hohle Fels	female figurine from Hohle Fels, Germany; the oldest representation art known, ca. 35,000-45,000 B.P.
Venustiano Carranza	In the fall of 1915 the administration of Woodrow Wilson recognized Carranza as the de facto president of Mexico despite the continuation of revolutionary violence. Wilson's decision caused Carranza's rival, Pancho Villa, to retaliate against Americans because he believed that he had been(...)
Verse	Lines of poetry.
vertigo	spinning sensation
Vicente Guerrero	One of the early supporters of Mexico's independence movement, Guerrero supported the efforts of Father Morelos to establish a republic in which all males would have the right to participate in politics, despite their ethnic heritage. Following Iturbide's attempt to dissolve congress in 1824,(...)
Victor Weisskopf	Weisskopf was a German physicist selected to work on the production of the atomic bomb under the Manhattan Project. Later, he became an advocate for the peaceful use of atomic energy.
Victorio	Victorio was the Warm Spring Apache Chief during the U.S. government's attempts to establish the indian agency/reservation system for relocation of Mimbres, Central Chiricahuas, Coyoteros, Gila, and Mogollon tribes in Southern New Mexico.
vigas	primary wooden support beams in a structure; vigas and latillas
villa	A small town or collection of properties usually reserved for the Spanish upperclass.
village-level specialization	when a village produces goods for an entire settlement system of villages
Villanelle	This French form consists of five tercets and a final quatrain. The first stanza’s first and third lines repeat in an alternating pattern as the last line in the subsequent stanzas. In the final quatrain, the two lines that have been repeating throughout the poem form the final two lines of(...)
Violence	Aggression that has extreme physical harm, such as injury or death, as its goal.
Virgen de Guadalupe	Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, the Patroness of Mexico, was said to have appeared to a peasant, Juan Diego, in 1531. She asked for a church to be build at the Hill of Tepeyac in her honor. As the story goes, following several miracles by the Virgin, Juan Diego and his family erected the church(...)
Visual literacy	The ability to read multi modal text.
Visual rhetoric	Representations and images designed to convince people instead, or in addition to, using words; the study of what impression visuals give a viewer.
Vocal Tract	The area that extends from the vocal cords to the lips where the sounds of language are generated.
Voice	Refers to elements of the author's tone, phrasing, and style that are recognizable unique to her or him.
Volta	a. A turn in thought in the sonnet form indicated sometimes by a “but” or “yet.” b. The turn that takes place in a sonnet in which there is a marked change in the speaker’s thought, emotion or rhetoric.
voluntary euthanasia	helping someone fulfill their wish to die by acting in such a way to help that person’s life end
Waggle Dance	Honey bee movement that conveys information about a food source. An example of displacement.
Waka	This Japanese form, which focuses primarily on nature or strong emotions, consists of five unrhymed, non-metrical lines with the syllable count 5 7 5 7 7. Lines one and two, as well as three and four, form complete sentences, as does the last line.
Walking Marriages	A system where biological fathers have little resposibility towatd his children. Instead the wife's brothers support her children.
Walter H. Prescott	Prescott was a historian and researcher on the the Texas Rangers and the Western Frontier.
War of a Thousand Deserts	Also known as the Comanche-Mexico Wars (1821-1870), the Kiowa and Comanche raided northern Mexico territories to capture livestock to sell in the United States.
War on Poverty	Introduced as a means to reduce poverty in the U.S. by President Lyndon Johnson. The legacy of the legislation remains today in the form of Head Start, VISTA, TRIO and Job Corp programs.
Washoe	The first chimpanzee to use sign in American Sign Language.
Waterfall Displays	Chimpanzee behavior at waterfalls involving erect fur, rhythymic swaying, throwing stones, Recorded at Gombe National Park in Tanzania
WEIRD	Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic
Wendell Chino	Chino led the Mescalero tribal council between 1953 until his death in 1998. Due to his strong leadership style, some observers have referred to him as autocratic. Through his no-nonsense style, he tirelessly worked to promote Mescalero self-determination and economic self-sufficiency.(...)
Western	Beliefs and values that have an origin in the European Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment
Whig Henry Clay	Henry Clay of Kentucky was ran unsuccessfully for the presidency on five different occasion. He was one of the leading members of the Whig party and one of the longest serving U.S. Senators of the nineteenth century. He was called the "Great Compromiser" for his instrumental role in creating(...)
wikiup	A traditional type of Native American lodging where a domed structure is supported by arched poles and other building material.
Willamette Valley	Prior to the 20th Century, Willamette Valley was inhabited by Kalapura Native Americans. Subsequent to the Lewis and Clark expeditions, the valley became a hub for fur traders.
William Becknell	In an effort to evade imprisonment for debts in Missouri, Becknell led a trade caravan along what later became known as the Santa Fe Trail in 1821. Somewhat serendipitously, his efforts opened the lucrative Santa Fe Trade.
William “Bill” Mauldin	A New Mexican editorial cartoonist, famous for his World War II cartoons of American GI's named "Willy and Joe."
William Brady	Sheriff of Lincoln County, NM during the Lincoln County Wars. Brady was killed in an ambush in 1878.
William C. McDonald	The first governor of the newly formed State of New Mexico
William Emory	Emory was a United States Army Officer and Texas boundary surveyor who produced a map in 1844 of Texas including territorial claims west of the Rio Grande. Also the author of the important work, Notes of a Military Reconnaissance from Fort Leavenworth in Missouri to San Diego in California,(...)
William Howard Taft	Taft served as the 27th U.S. President from 1909-1913. He promoted Dollar Diplomacy, a political means to secure economic and commercial interests of the U.S. in third world countries, specifically with Mexico.
William McCabe	McCabe was one of the original Navajo Code Talkers. Years after the fact, he demonstrated the typical humility of the group about the work they had done during the war. He commented, "We’re just a walking coding machine …that’s all. Whatever the other guy says it goes through his ears. It(...)
William R. Morley	Along with Frank Springer, William Morley challenged the political and economic prominence of the Santa Fe Ring over affairs in Colfax County in the 1870s.
William R. Scurry	Scurry was a Confederate General during the U.S. Civil War who lead troops, during the New Mexico Campaign, to significant victories at Glorieta Pass and Valverde.
William T. Sherman	Sherman was a renowned Major General of the Civil War. Sherman's "March to the Sea" led to the taking of Savannah, Georgia for the Union and the beginning of the end for the Confederacy.
Winfield Scott	Scott was a Civil War General, who lead U.S. forces in the U.S.-Mexican War overland to Mexico City. This feat won the war.
withdrawn-rejected	children who are excluded because they are shy and withdrawn
Women’s Army Corps	Created as a women's auxiliary unit of the United States Army in 194, the WACs were directly involved in war effort for the U.S. in England, Germany, Japan, and Russia.
Woodrow Wilson	Wilson served as the 28th U.S. President who, during World War I, negotiated the Treaty of Versailles which lead to the creation of the League of Nations–the forerunner of the United Nations–and the eventual end of World War I.
working memory	the second component of the memory system where information that has been processed in sensory memory goes. Working memory includes all the information that you are consciously aware of
working memory	a cognitive system with a limited capacity that is responsible for temporarily holding information available for processing
Working thesis statement	An indefinite statement that a writer makes about their topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning or guiding their writing.
World Heritage Sites	There are 759 cultural sites around the world that are considered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to have universal value for humanity. (see Chapter 3) http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/
Worthwhile assertation	Reveals a perspective on your subject that provides possibilities for further exploration.
yeoman farmer	An honest farmer who worked the land with his family as an embodiment of ideal Republican vision for the nation: honest, virtuous, hardworking, and independent.
Young Hickory	James K. Polk was also known by the nickname "Young Hickory" due to his association with former President Andrew Jackson whose nickname was "Old Hickory."
Zachary Taylor	General Zachary Taylor led an army of 3,500 men into Texas to secure the territory for the United States. He also joined General Winfield Scott with 10,000 reinforcements on a campaign to capture Mexico City. He later became President of the United States in 1848 and died in office in 1850.
zambos	A racial term used in the Spanish colonies in the Americans to refer to people of African and Amerindian mixed-race descent.
Zebulon Pike	Pike led a small expedition into northern New Spain in 1807 in an attempt to find out whether or not U.S. territorial claims might be extended into the region. His party became stranded in the mountains near present-day Pikes Peak in Colorado and their arrest by a New Mexican party under(...)
Zimmermann Telegram	The Zimmermann Telegram was a diplomatic proposal, sent via telegram, from the German Empire to the Mexican Government offering military aid during World War I.
zone of proximal development	the range of material that a child is ready to learn if proper support and guidance are given from either a peer who understands the material or by an adult
zone of proximal development (ZPD)	The difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they can do with help
Zoonotic Diseases	Diseases that can be transferred between humans and animals.
Zuni Language	The language of the Zuni people, spoken by approximately 9,500 people worldwide.
zygote	A one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge
zygote intrafallopian tube transfer	sperm and ova are fertilized outside of the woman’s body and the zygote is then implanted in the fallopian tube to allow the zygote to travel and embed in the lining of the uterus naturally