We began with the intuition that in a conditional sentence if p (then) q, the if clause describes some condition under which the then clause will be true. We noted that modals have a somewhat similar function, in that modal operators (in particular, modal markers of necessity) specify sets of possible worlds in which the basic proposition will be true. In Chapter 16 we analyzed modals as quantifiers over possible worlds, and it seems plausible that a similar approach might work for conditionals as well.
A quantificational analysis of conditionals is further supported by the observation that, when the consequent clause in a conditional sentence contains a quantifier-type expression (e.g. all, usually, should, etc.), the word if seems to have no independent meaning. Rather, the antecedent of the conditional is added to the restriction of the quantifier, as illustrated in (27–30) above. When there is no overt quantifier in the consequent, the meaning of the conditional sentence can generally be well paraphrased in terms of epistemic necessity or (given the appropriate tense marking on the consequent’s verb) generic frequency.
This kind of quantificational analysis for conditionals seems to work well for hypothetical conditionals, but other uses of the conditional form present additional challenges. In the case of counterfactuals, some more elaborate means seems to be required to restrict the set of relevant possible worlds. In the case of speech act conditionals, the issue does not seem to be the truth of the consequent but the felicity or appropriateness of the associated speech act. Whether all the various uses of if can be unified under a single sense remains an open and much-discussed question.
Further reading
Von Fintel (2011) provides a good introduction to the study of conditionals, including a summary of much recent work on the topic. Comrie (1986) offers a useful typological study of the construction. Kratzer (1986) provides a very clear and readable argument for her restrictor analysis. Kearns (2000: 61–64) provides a brief and helpful introduction to the analysis of counterfactual conditionals, and von Fintel (2012) provides an excellent overview of the topic. Bhatt & Pancheva (2006) discuss the syntactic structure of conditionals and how the structure relates to the meaning. They also present a good discussion of the various uses of if.
Discussion exercises
A: Types of conditionals. Identify the type of conditional expressed in each of the following sentences. Use one of the following labels: standard, relevance, concessive, or factual; and for standard conditionals, add one of the following: reality, hypothetical, counterfactual.
1. I wouldn’t eat that stew if you paid me.
2. If you place your order now, I will include the batteries for free.
3. If you have no money, where did you get all this electronic equipment?
4. If wishes were horses, beggars would ride.
5. I just told you that I have a meeting with a client this evening. And if I have a meeting with a client, there is no way I can go to the game with you.
6. If you like seafood, there is a great restaurant down by the harbor.
7. If you had waited for me, I would have married you.
8. I’ll show you the agenda if you promise not to tell anyone.
B: Restrictor analysis. Use the restricted quantifier notation to express the interpretation of the following sentences, omitting the words in parentheses:
1. Few boxers are famous if they lose.
2. Subtitles are often funny if they are mistranslated.
3. John must pass Greek if he drops Hebrew.
4. If the Bishop was preaching, we used to be late (for Sunday dinner).
Homework exercises
A: Types of conditionals. Show how you could use some of the tests discussed in Chapter 19 to determine whether the conditional clauses in the following examples conditional are standard conditionals or speech act conditionals.
(1) If you want my advice, I will do some research and send you an e-mail.
(2) If you want my advice, Arnold is not the right man for you.
B: Restrictor analysis.
(3) Use the restricted quantifier notation to express the interpretation of the following sentences:
a. Most students are happy if they pass.
b. If the light is on, Arthur must be at home.
c. If it rains, I drive to work.
(4) Use the restricted quantifier notation to express the two possible interpretations for the following sentence:
d. Arthur may not visit Betty if she insults him.
