The mass media in general serve the functions as discussed above, while the normative understanding (this means an understanding of how things should be in a certain context) of the mass media in liberal democracies is that the mass media should function as watchdogs of society and of public officials. Some refer to the media as the fourth estate, with the branches of government being the first three estates (legislative, executive, and judicial) and the media equally participating as the fourth. The mass media are the watchdogs of the other three estates. However, in recent years, there has been rising distrust in the media, with many people simply not trusting what they see or hear on the news anymore. The internet has made it easy for everyone to distribute fake news, and many people even accuse the media of spreading fake news if they do not like what they read.
Watchdogs
While countries like China, North Korea, and Zimbabwe have media systems that are nearly, if not totally, controlled by the state regime, the media in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, and many other countries are viewed, especially by journalists themselves, as the watchdog over the government. This watchdog role is intended to keep governments from taking too much power from the people and overstepping their bounds. Central to this role is the notion that the press works independently of the government. The freedom of the press as guaranteed by the South African Constitution allows the media to act as the eyes and ears of the people. The media is supposed to report information to the public so they can make informed decisions. The media also engages in investigative reporting, which can uncover dangers or corruption that the media can then expose so that the public can demand change.
Of course, this ideal is not always met in practice. Some people have critiqued the media’s ability to fulfil this role, referring to it instead as a lapdog or attack dog. In terms of the lapdog role, the media can become too “cosy” with a politician or other public figure, which might lead it to uncritically report or passively relay information without questioning it.
In the South African media, some politicians sometimes get a lot of good coverage, while others only get bad coverage. In terms of the attack-dog role, the 24-hour news cycle and constant reporting on public figures have created the kind of atmosphere where journalists may be seen to be waiting to pounce on a mistake or error in order to get the scoop and be able to produce a tantalising story. Media scholars have critiqued this practice, saying that too much adversarial or negative reporting leads the public to think poorly of public officials and be more dissatisfied with government, and sometimes the events that are being reported on, are not really important or have no effect on how the country is governed. Sometimes, it is just journalists looking for scandals for the sake of scandal. This leads to a lack of trust in journalists.
In many ways, social media users, and even YouTube producers, now also play a watchdog role, often highlighting issues in communities that the mass media neglect to show.
Agenda-setters
You have already been introduced to the concept of agenda-setting. This is the act of choosing which issues or topics deserve public discussion. The media plays a significant part in deciding what is important and what the public will talk about by selecting certain stories to publish and neglecting others. In a postcolonial society, the media should be careful to also cover stories that relate to marginalised people and voices and not set agendas that perpetuate colonial class or power systems.
The internet has changed the agenda-setting role of the media to an extent. Before the internet, the media alone decided what was important; now an issue can become important because it goes viral on social media. Protests can be organised on social media, and issues can be discussed. Sometimes, agendas are now set by ordinary people on the internet and then picked up by the media, like the #Feesmustfall movement. It started on social media and was picked up by the mass media, eventually influencing government policy.
Another example was during the coronavirus lockdown in 2020 in South Africa, when the killing of Collins Khoza became a matter of the public agenda after social media footage about the event became viral. It is clear that in the digital era, the agenda-setting power of traditional media is often appropriated by social media and smartphones. Tumblr, Facebook, YouTube, and other internet sites allow witnesses to instantly upload images and accounts of events and forward the link to friends. Some uploads go viral and attract the attention of the mainstream media. This means that ordinary people now set the news agendas as well.
Journalists as facilitators of transformation
There are many scholars and journalists in former colonial societies that argue the media’s role should include helping foster national unity and furthering the transformation process and social change.
In an African context, journalism can also be about nation building and transformation (Rodny-Gumede, 2018). Many South African journalists understand that the watchdog role is not their only role; they also acknowledge that the media need to open up to previously neglected segments of society, to listen to the voices of under-represented people and to provide them with a voice. Journalism in a postcolonial society like South Africa needs to fulfil a public service function as well (Rodny-Gumede, 2018).
In postcolonial societies where conflict is prevalent, there are also arguments for the media to practise peace journalism as part of their transformation role and not fuel the conflict.
Prof Fredrick Ogenga from Rongo University in Kenya explained in an article in The Conversation what peace journalism means:
African peace journalism rejects the notion that ‘nothing good can come out of Africa’. It seeks to challenge the negative narratives about Africa. Africans can be both authors and sources of positive narratives. This requires us to rethink our set of news values if we are to imagine a new kind of transformative journalism.
We must also be clear about what peace journalism isn’t. It is not reporting that is wholly or even primarily oriented towards peace at all costs. It does not sacrifice truth and justice for a ‘law and order’ type of peace as defined by the state. Instead, the essential elements of this form of journalism include sensitivity, agility, caution, factual information and self-reflectivity in relation to what media practitioners put into the content of news reports and editorials.
Peace journalism is a type of journalism that can be very valuable in societies where there is conflict or tension. Rodny-Gumede (2018) writes in an article in The Conversation that it has been shown that headlines about war and conflict help news media get more readers or viewers, but researchers also found that these types of headlines and stories often help to perpetuate violence. That is why journalists should be careful to report accurately and fairly during periods of conflict. This includes election periods, when the media should give all parties a fair share of coverage and also help ensure that the election proceeds fairly. During periods of conflict – such as the violent protests in South Africa in July 2021 after former president Jacob Zuma was imprisoned – the media can play a role in not fuelling the conflict. They can do this by analysing the reasons for the conflict, by not inflaming tensions further with sensationalist headlines or language, and by helping to look for solutions.
Some people who study and/or work in the media view media diversity as a means of expanding public dialogue, creating a more-informed citizenry and enhancing democracy through positive social change – in other words, to help transform society. The media should represent more voices and more viewpoints to help tell stories that are not told enough about marginalised people. Some online news sources have taken up such a call, but they fall short of the popularity or profitability of more mainstream news outlets. In South Africa, for example, GroundUp covers news for and about marginalised people in society, but their journalism model is not profitable – they rely on grants to make money.
Representation and transformation also refer to the sources you use in stories. Often, the experts that are quoted in sources are male and highly educated; journalists should make a stronger effort to quote a variety of sources and experts, female sources, lesser-known sources, and even ordinary citizens who may be experts on a subject. These sources should also represent all races.
Providing local news
The media can fulfil a public service in small towns and suburbs by offering a platform for public debate and improving citizen awareness. Smaller, local news outlets also provide an important service to local communities. Major national or city newspapers have faced many challenges in recent decades, meaning that many of them do not cover news from small towns anymore. Local and community newspapers are very important in smaller towns and cities. Hyperlocal content includes information like real-estate transactions, obituaries, school lunch menus, high school sports team statistics, and police activities – news that is interesting for people in these towns. In small towns, these are important events, and many local newspapers have a key advantage in that they can provide this type of news.
The four functions of journalism discussed above are not the only ones. Sometimes journalism simply informs people about anything that readers, viewers and listeners might find interesting – from travel to new products to beauty tips.
