It is better to collect too much information than too little. Journalists gather information for stories in various ways. Usually, a combination of the following steps is needed:
Observation on the scene
Initial research
Speaking to eyewitnesses
Contacting other sources and experts.
Observe and record information
On-the-scene observation is one of the fundamentals of good reporting. Journalists want to witness events for themselves whenever possible so they can describe them accurately to their audience. Good journalists use all their senses on the scene. They look, listen, smell, taste and feel the story so the audience can, too. For example, on the scene of a fire at a tyre factory, a journalist who witnesses the scene can describe the smell of the burning rubber to the audience and describe the black cloud of smoke hanging over the area. It is worth mentioning here that journalists are allowed to observe people in public spaces and even to take pictures or videos. In terms of South African privacy laws, people who enter a public space (the streets outside) implicitly give other people permission to look at them and even take their pictures. However, in private spaces (such as inside a supermarket or inside a lecture hall), the privacy rules of the institution take preference. In these cases, you usually need to ask permission first before you take pictures or make videos. In our chapter about journalistic ethics (chapter 7), these issues are explored in more detail.
To describe scenes to their readers, journalists need an accurate record of their observations. Many journalists still use notebooks and pens to record observations and comments from sources but most now also use their smartphones to help them capture information. With smartphones, journalists can take pictures, record sound clips, and make video recordings. The quality of mobile phone pictures and videos is now so good that even large broadcasters, such as the BBC, routinely play video clips on TV that were made onmobile phones. The viewers probably do not even know that much of the news they are watching on TV was shot using mobile phones. One of the best skills you can develop as a journalist when gathering your information is to know your mobile phone well and to use it to record video, sound, and images.
Using your phone’s voice recorder is one way of making sure that any quotations you might use are accurate. But electronics have been known to fail, so it is important for all journalists to be skilled notetakers. Do not rely on only your phone for recording information; make sure that you also keep written notes.
Here are some tips on notetaking from experienced journalists:
Write down facts, details, thoughts, and ideas. Make clear which is which and where they came from.
Draw diagrams of rooms, scenes, or items in relationship to each other. This is also useful if you need to brief an infographics journalist later to create an infographic for your story.
Always get correctly spelled names, titles, and contact information. Ask for birth date and year to make sure you have the person’s age right. Do not be shy to ask people to spell out their names if you are not sure of the spelling.
Do not crowd the notebook. Leave space for adding notes later.
Make sure you take down correct notes – that all your information is correct.
Add additional notes as soon as possible after the interview if you remember something important that was said.
Many journalists mark the most important information they have learnt, good quotes they may use in the story, anything they need to follow up on or check for accuracy, and questions that still need to be answered.
Make sure that you take all the tools you need with you when you go out to cover a story. A mobile phone is usually enough to take pictures with and make recordings of your interviews, but you also need a notebook and a pen. Sometimes, a camera is also needed, but most journalists now use only their mobile phones. Photo by Frans van Heerden from Pexels
Smartphones are very good tools to use for gathering and recording information in journalism. You can use smartphones as notebooks to take pictures and to make videos. Smartphones have quite good cameras now (Podger, n.d.) and work well for making news videos or taking pictures. Even less expensive phones now have excellent cameras.
There are many apps and external tools that you can use to turn your smartphone into a professional journalistic tool. Some of these tools are external microphones, tripods and various apps that can help you edit pictures and audio-visual material. An external light and a power bank, for when your battery runs down, may also be useful.
It is not the aim of this textbook to delve into all the finer details of smartphone journalism; there are excellent resources online that provide detailed information, with tips on how to prepare the scene, how to record, how to edit your material, how to improve sound and video quality, and other useful information. You can start with the Mobile Journalism Manual from the Konrad Adenauer Stiftung 7 – it is an excellent and complete manual with all the information you need.
The most important points to keep in mind when using your smartphone as a journalistic tool for information gathering are the following:
Know how your phone works. Get to know the functions and apps on your phone by making some test videos and recordings.
Download the apps you think you might need before heading out looking for stories. These can be video-editing apps such as PowerDirector and GoPro Quik, photography apps such as ProShot and VSCO, or audio apps such as Ferrite or n-Track.
When making a video, carefully consider whether your story has visual appeal. For example, “talking heads” – people who are just talking – are not visually attractive. Rather try to find scenes that are visually interesting so that you can tell an interesting visual story. If you interview someone who wrote a new book, let them show the book, page through the book, and show their research files instead of just talking all the time.
Do not interrupt your subjects while they are talking. Let them finish what they want to say, and then ask the next question. This will also make your editing easier, because usually you will need to remove all your questions from the final video anyway.
When taking pictures or making videos, get as close to the subject as you possibly can. This way you can get clear and useful pictures and visuals. It is better not to use the phone’s zoom function, unless you tested it well and know it works. Sometimes, zoomed-in pictures or videos look fuzzy.
Use both handsto hold your phone when recording a video if you do not have a tripod. This will ensure a steady shot, with less shaking.
Frame your subjects clearly – make sure there are no distractions such as trees or noisy people in the background. If necessary, try to move your interview subject to a quieter spot. The Lifelong Learning Foundation (KVS) and Birzeit University Media Development Center (MDC) have an excellent guide available online with detailed tips about taking good pictures and making good videos.
Use an external microphone when interviewing sources, especially if you need to broadcast the interview online or on radio or television. Most phones have good microphones, but one needs to stand very close to the microphone for good sound.
An external microphone, held up to the source’s mouth while they are talking will ensure good sound. Many phones are shipped with free hands-free sets; these sets are perfect to use as external microphones.
Use your phone’s recorder function if you need to make a quick voice note of something that you feel you might forget.
Activate your phone’s airplane mode while filming or recording. You do not want to start all over because WhatsApp message tones or phone calls interrupted your recording session.
Be aware of ambient noise when you are making recordings. Try to move away from noisy areas if possible so that the sound will be clear. This is particularly important if you want to broadcast your recordings or use them in a video or sound clip on a website.
A wearable camera – for example, action cameras used by athletes – if you have access to such a camera, could be a very easy way to make recordings while you are talking to someone for some additional footage. But do not rely on the wearable camera only; also use your smartphone camera where you can frame your recordings properly.
Clean your lens before shooting a video.
Try to plan your video or audio story beforehand, if possible. This way you can make sure your story has a beginning, a middle and an end. Video stories should usually follow a narrative style, with a clear beginning, details in the middle, and an end.
When using your smartphone to gather information, it is a good idea to upload the information to a folder in the cloud – you can use Google Drive, Dropbox, Huawei Cloud, OneDrive or various other services.
Sometimes, you might be able to use your company’s cloud service. Google Drive gives all users 15GB of free space, which is quite enough for pictures and videos. It is important to upload your information to the cloud from the scene to make sure you do not lose the information. You might lose your phone, or there might be a technical error. If you set up your phone to make back-ups of notes, pictures, and videos automatically, you will always know that your information is safe.
To summarise, it sounds obvious, but journalists must be sure they have the tools they need before heading out to cover a story; at the very least, you should always carry a notebook, pen, smartphone, freshly charged batteries, and a power bank.
There is nothing more embarrassing than arriving on the scene only to discover that your pen has no ink left, or your smartphone battery is flat. Make sure that you test your phone beforehand to make sure the camera, video and sound recording work as they should. Familiarise yourself with the steps needed to start and end recordings, and make sure that the recordings are saved properly on your phone. Make sure you know how to use your phone for journalism.
Research
Journalists tend to collect much more information than they can put into a story, but that information always helps them better understand the event or issue they are covering. Journalists need background information about a story to help them understand the story. Sometimes, background information is essential to give a story deeper meaning. You need to know what you are talking about, or what you are seeing on the ground, so you should always read up a little about a place or people or an event before you go there. Arriving without any background knowledge may mean that you might not interpret the situation correctly or know what is going on or what questions to ask.
Journalists have more research tools available today than ever before, thanks to the internet. Many of the tools used in the past are now available on our computer or even on our mobile phones, for example, phone directories, encyclopaedias, and maps. Wikipedia is also useful to get basic information quickly to give you some context about a story, but do not rely on Wikipedia for all the facts in your story. Wikipedia facts might be outdated or unreliable. Wikipedia is a good project, with many people around the world contributing their knowledge for free, but it can be biased or incomplete. Hence, you always need to get facts directly from your sources. Use Wikipedia to get an overview of a subject, and then start digging deeper to find other sources. There are many databases and reports available online that would have been much harder to find in the days before the internet, requiring a personal visit to a library or a government building.
You can also use search engines, blogs, chatrooms, e-mail lists, social media messaging services and instant messaging services to find new information. All of these resources are useful to journalists collecting background on a story. But one of the most basic research tools has not changed in a century: the news organisation’s own library of previously published or broadcast stories. Now, most news organisation have online libraries or easily searchable websites where you can find previous stories about the topic you are covering (writing or broadcasting about). These previous stories are a useful starting place for all kinds of stories. Many journalists also keep their own file system of all the stories they have written. This is a particularly useful way to build your own encyclopaedia – just file all your previous stories somewhere, in a logical way, so that you can refer back to your own stories to check information. Using the cloud (such as Google Drive or DropBox) for storing your work is useful because you can access your own stories and personal encyclopaedia anywhere you are, even from your mobile phone while you are on the scene of a story.
Finding sources
Journalists cannot write news stories without sources. Good sources are usually other people, for example, experts, witnesses, participants in events, or people who have been affected by events. These are primary sources. Primary sources are better in news stories.
Original documents related to a topic – such as a report about pollution in the Vaal Dam – are also primary sources. Primary sources are always related to a story topic in a direct, immediate way. Journalists who view events are also primary sources because they see the event with their own eyes and can report back what they saw.
Journalists also use secondary sources when reporting news. A secondary source might be a written report based on an original document. In the case of a fire, for example, the person whose house burnt down would be a primary source, so would a firefighter who wasinvolved in putting out the fire. But the press release issued by the fire department the next day, based on their own internal report of the fire, would be a secondary source.
One very important rule of thumb journalists follow when researching a story is that no single source can provide all of the information they might need. Usually, each source leads to another source. Sometimes, sources contradict each other. To clear up discrepancies, journalists may have to see where the weight of the evidence lies or seek out original sources, such as documents, to determine which version is true. Secondary sources are most useful as a way of confirming information acquired from primary sources. There are almost no news stories that can be written with just one source. Generally, it is a good idea to find at least three sources for each story. This way you will be sure that you hear different points of view, then you can weigh the evidence and make an informed judgement.
Whatever sources you use to research the background of a story, it is critical to consider the validity or credibility of the source. These days, anyone can design a professional-looking website or arrange to send an e-mail that looks authentic but is really a hoax. Just because you can find it online does not mean that it is true. This is especially true for any information you find on social media and messaging platforms in e-mails. There is a lot of misinformation and fake news on social media, and it is very easy to fake an e-mail. Gullible people often believe these lies. As a journalist, it is your job to check and verify any claims you see on social media. It would be hugely embarrassing if you wrote a news story based on information that is untrue. For example, in 2001, The Guardian in London published a story, based on a chain e-mail, that George W. Bush’s IQ was the lowest of all US presidents. It was fake news. Therefore, journalists need to verify all information as well as the source of all information to determine whether these are credible enough to use in a news story.
Deciding what sources to use for a story is a large part of a journalist’s job. Here are some useful questions for evaluating whether you have chosen the right source or the best source for your story:
How does this source know what they know? (Is this person in a position to know these things, either personally or professionally? For example, if they claim to know something about a secret nuclear weapon being developed in Zimbabwe, how do they know that? Are they scientists? Nuclear experts?)
How can I confirm this information through other sources or through documents? (All information should be verified against other sources.)
How representative is my source’s point of view? (Is this just one person who complains loudly about the landlord because they have a personal problem? Or is this someone who is speaking on behalf of an entire group of tenants who have serious, legitimate problems?)
Has this source been reliable and credible in the past?
Am I only using this source because it’s the easy way to go or because I know I’ll get something I can use?
What is the source’s motive for providing information? (Is this person trying to make themselves look good or to make the boss look bad? Why are they talking to me in the first place?)
Warning
Be careful when using social media as sources; there are many unsubstantiated claims on social media. The same is true for rumours. Rumours can never be trusted, but sometimes they do lead to interesting stories. Treat social media and rumours the same; always verify the information to make sure that you do not spread fake news. Using social media as your only source is extremely dangerous. In South Africa, there is legislation against spreading fake news, and if you republish fake news that you found on social media, it can have serious consequences. Always check the facts.
Interviewing sources
Journalistic interviewing is a skill you need to learn; it is different from a casual conversation. You should approach your source in the correct way, behave in a certain way, ask good questions, and give your source time to respond. Interviews are an opportunity to find all the information you need to compile a story. You should know how to do interviews well.
For many stories, you will need to speak to sources. Often, this means that you will need to interview people. News cannot be written without sources, and 99% of the time, your sources will be people. Websites and other news media can also be sources, but the best source with the latest information will be directly involved in the story in some way.
Sometimes, it can be difficult to arrange interviews. Where do you find the people you want to interview? How do you get hold of them? How do you arrange the interview? You will identify sources based on some of the examples we have already discussed – witnesses, experts, people who want to share information about something. Sometimes, you will need to do some research to find out which expert would be able to give you information on a certain topic. Then you need to contact them, preferably by phone, and ask for an interview.
Many people may not want to talk with a journalist, especially if the story is controversial. All interviews will be different, and all sources will be different. Over time, you will learn some tricks to convince people to talk to you. For example, when dealing with government officials, start from the idea that the public has a right to know what the officials are doing.
Experienced journalists have found they can persuade even the most reluctant officials to agree to an interview by being prepared and by explaining to officials that people need to hear their side of the story. When talking to ordinary citizens, also try to convince them that it is important for them to tell their side of the story so that the story is not one-sided. Try to convince them that the reader or viewer would like to see their opinion. Of course, sometimes, a source will refuse to talk to you no matter what. That is not the end of the story. You then need to find someone else who can also give you the information.
As a journalist, you do not need to ask sources to approve your story, nor can they insist on seeing the story before publication. This is to ensure that the story is presented as objectively as possible, based on your final evaluation of all source material. Sources may not be allowed to change stories. If a source insists on approving a story before speaking to you, you should decide whether you really need that source or whether you should just find someone else. If you really need a specific source and there is no one else (for example, the source might be one of the few experts on COVID-19 vaccinations in South Africa), then you can agree to let the source see your story to make sure that you quoted them correctly and that the facts (especially if the story is filled with complicated scientific facts) are correct. But you must agree upfront that they cannot change the story; they can merely indicate if there are factual or scientific errors and correct these. This can be helpful if you write stories about complicated issues – experts can help ensure that the story is correct. But also remember that, while interviewing people about complicated issues, you should already ask them to clarify anything you do not understand so that you can explain the story clearly to your audience.
Some excuses sources come up with, and how to deal with them
Sources may have all kinds of excuses for why they cannot talk to you. Some of these are listed below, with some possible solutions.
“I don’t have time.” The journalist can offer to meet at the most convenient time or place for the person they want to speak with and keep the interview short. You can also suggest meeting them in an online interview, using tools such as Zoom, Google Meet or Teams, which can often be quicker than driving somewhere to meet.
“I am afraid the story will make me look bad.” Treating people with respect and telling them precisely why you want to talk with them would help sources be less anxious. Often, it helps to tell people you want to show all sides of the story.
“I don’t know what to say.” Journalists need to be clear about why the story needs a particular person’s point of view. Explain to people what information you think they can add to the story.
“I don’t want to talk to anyone from your publication.” This is a difficult one. It is true that some sources might distrust your publication for a personal reason. You should try to convince the source that your publication is trustworthy and that it would be worthwhile for the source to speak to you.
Sources may be hard to reach. Journalists often must go through an administrative assistant or public relations officer to contact the person they want to interview. This can be cumbersome and, sometimes, your messages are not conveyed. You can try to write a direct e-mail to the source or call during lunch or after business hours in an effort to get through. You can also (as a last resort) try to contact people via their social media platforms.
Important
Whenever you approach a source, explain to them clearly that you are a journalist and that you are gathering information for a story. It is completely unethical to gather information “under cover” or under false pretences and then to use that information to write a news story. You should always make sure that your sources know exactly who you are and that you are gathering information to write a story that will be published or broadcast to the wider public.
It is also important to remember that you should treat certain sources with compassion. You may be required to interview people who have experienced traumatic events. They might still be in shock when you speak to them. Respect them; do not force them to speak to you. If they are unwilling to speak to you, you should accept that and find someone else who would be willing to speak to you. Understand that victims of traumatic events are still working through the trauma. In some ways, you might actually help them by offering a receptive ear – it sometimes helps people to talk to someone about their experience.
As a journalist, you should not abuse their vulnerability; make sure that they do understand you would like to use their information in a story and that they are willing to share their story with the public. If you see that a source appears to struggle to cope with their experience, you could offer them some help by providing telephone numbers or contact details of trauma counselling services.
As a journalist, you should not become involved in a personal way. This is difficult for many journalists to deal with, but you need to remember that you are the observer and the person who will share the story of events with the public; you are not the person who is expected to help the victims. However, this does not mean that you should be cold-hearted; you can still help people by directing them to professionals who can assist.
Most journalists use press cards to identify themselves to sources. This helps sources trust you and believe that you really are a journalist. A press card can also be very useful if you need to enter a building or an event where regular members of the public are not allowed, for example an official government briefing that might only be open to members of the press. It is important to treat your press card with respect and not abuse the privileges that the card provides.
An example of a press card. Photo by Ingmar Zahorsky from Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0).
Asking the right questions, and what not to ask
Once you have secured the interview and researched the person and the topic, there is still more preparation to do. Most journalists develop a list of questions or topics which they take with them but do not read from during the interview. Instead, they refer to the list only near the end to make sure they have not forgotten something important. The list also includes other information, documents, or photographs they want to obtain from the source.
Important
Something to remember when doing any kind of interview: you are not allowed to record the interview or take pictures without permission. Make it very clear to the interviewee(s) that you would like to make a recording or take a picture and ask their permission that you may use the recording or picture(s) in your story.
Questions are the backbone of an interview. Good questions can reward you with unexpected answers, rich information, and surprises; poor questions can leave you wondering why you bothered to talk to that person anyway. Questions that are too specific can lead you down the wrong trail.
The first question in an interview is important because it sets the tone for what follows. Many journalists like to begin with an “ice-breaker” question that lets the source relax. It is something the source is comfortable answering. It may in fact have nothing to do with the reason you are there, but often it helps to establish your credentials with the source, and that can establish a sense of trust and openness. This helps both the journalist and the interviewee because it calms the nerves and puts both parties at ease. However, some sources do not like the informal chit-chat at the start of an interview, so it helps to be a judge of character or to read the situation and use a more formal style when needed.
When you interview someone, you should make sure that you know the background to your story and that you have some good questions ready to ask them. Photo by EA Grafiks from Pexels
Most of the time, the best questions are open-ended questions that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. They are also non-judgmental in that they do not show the journalist’s point of view. There is a difference between “What do you think about that?” and “What were you thinking?!” The sentence “What were you thinking?!” is judgemental, it implies that your source was not thinking clearly. While it is important to ask good questions, it is also important to be quiet and let the interviewee talk. Good journalists are good listeners and often learn the most significant information by being silent. What you hear also can lead to additional questions that may not have occurred to you.
There are some questions that journalists should not ask (Strong, 2014). These are closed questions, presumptive questions, and double questions that refer to two aspects.
Closed questions usually have one-word answers (such as, “yes” or “no”, “blue” or “red”). You need longer quotes to compile better stories. Presumptive questions make your own opinion come through, which should never happen, because you should be objective. These questions can make sources agree with your point of view without them realising it. Double questions can have two answers or one answer that does not make sense.
Examples of questions
Inadequate question
Better question
Was the rain very heavy last night? The answer is a simple “no”; you need a description.
What happened last night during the rainstorm? This would lead the interviewee
to explain and describe the heavy rain.
Was there a flood last night? Again, the answer is just “yes”. No details.
Can you explain what happened last night during the flooding?
Do you think the closure of the newspaper Free Press by the government is censorship? This is a presumptive question; the journalist wants the source to agree to their view that the newspaper was closed because of censorship.
Why do you think the newspaper Free Press closed down? This is an open question asking for an explanation. Perhaps it was for financial reasons. The source can explain this now.
Do you think former president Jacob Zuma was corrupt, and why do you think so? This is a double question and a presumptive question trying to lead the interviewee towards a certain viewpoint.
What do you think happened at the Treasury when former president Jacob
Zuma was in office? This is an open question, allowing the interviewee to
explain what they think.
Some general questions that you can almost always ask:
What happened?
How did it happen?
Where did it happen?
When did it happen?
Can you describe what happened?
What is your opinion about this topic?
Do you have a solution/suggestion for this issue?
Why do you think this is a problem/an issue?
What would you like to see to make things better?
Please clarify what you just said; I apologise, it is complicated for me, and I would like to make sure my readers understand.
Please spell your name for me so that I am sure I write it correctly.
The graphic below shows the steps you need to take when planning and conducting an interview:
How to do interviews
Journalists can do interviews in person, by telephone, via email, instant messaging or by using video-meeting platforms such as Zoom, Teams or Google Meet. Each approach has advantages and disadvantages. The best method is always to meet someone in person and speak to them directly, but sometimes this is not possible. The least-successful interview method is email interviewing. Many sources ignore requests for email interviews.
Interviewing in person gives the journalist a more complete sense of the individual. But journalists should also observe the surroundings. What kinds of photos are on the wall? Is the desk messy or neat? What books are in the bookcase? Meeting in person gives the journalist the ability to judge the source’s credibility based on their demeanour. Do they look nervous or comfortable? Are they willing to look the journalist in the eye? Christopher (Chip) Scanlan (2002) – director of writing workshops for The Poynter Institute, a journalism school in the US – tells the story of interviewing a woman who had lost her husband to cancer. She gave him a tour of her home, and in the bedroom, she said, “You know, every night I put just a little of [my husband’s] cologne on the pillow, so I can believe he is still with me.” It is a detail that the reader can smell and feel, which Scanlan never would have learnt over the phone or online.
Telephone interviews take less time, and some journalists find it easier to take good notes when they do not have to worry about maintaining eye contact with the source. They can even type their notes on their computer. Sometimes, if a source is far away, or if it is not practical to meet for some reason, a telephone (or video) interview is a good second choice.
Email or instant messaging interviews are useful for reaching people in distant places, but the journalist cannot listen to what is being said and follow up in “real time”. Instant messaging via messaging apps is a little bit more like a telephone interview because you can ask follow-up questions. But both online methods raise the question as to whether the person they appear to be from has actually sent the answers. A problem with email interviews is that many people feel they do not have time to “write your story for you”. If someone needs to answer email questions, they need to spend a lot of time typing out their answers, and in the busy world of today, some people just do not want to do this. But they might be willing to say a few words over the phone or in person. Journalists using email or other online forms of communication should follow the same professional standards as they would in any other form of communication. They must identify themselves as journalists and tell what information they are seeking and why. They need to apply the same fact checking and thinking skills they would to any other source of information. Write your e-mail in a professional style, address the person properly, and sign the e-mail with your name and job title. Sending unsigned one-liners is not professional, and most people will not respond to such sloppy emails.
Video-meeting interviews are extremely useful when people are far away or if you cannot meet people in person because of other concerns (such as during the coronavirus pandemic when people had to practice physical distancing). Video interviews can be quite similar to in-person interviews because you can see the person you are interviewing, observe their mannerisms, the space around them, and even make eye contact. You can take pictures (screenshots) while you are talking (just make sure that you ask the source first if you may take pictures and use them in your story). One great advantage of video meetings is that you can interview people from all around the world (Johnston, 2013). A disadvantage is that you need a stable internet connection and a back-up plan if the internet goes down.
Attribution of sources and information
All news stories contain attribution. Attribution simply answers the question “Who says?” and identifies the source of the information reported, particularly any controversial statements or questionable information. The attribution should include full details about the source, such as the name, the title and the position of the person. A university professor called Mpho Kganyago in Journalism at the North-West University (NWU), will not be identified as Mr Kganyago from the NWU. In this case, the correct attribution would be Prof Mpho Kganyago from the School of Journalism at the NWU Mahikeng Campus.
One major reason to attribute information in news stories is to allow readers, listeners and viewers to decide for themselves whether to believe the information. For example, a report that North Korea has decided to suspend its nuclear programme could be seen as more or less credible by some audiences, depending on who is quoted as saying so – a North Korean farmer, or an international team of scientists who visited the nuclear facility?
Another reason for attribution is to place responsibility for a controversial statement where it belongs – with the person who said it, not with the journalist or the news organisation. This does not imply immunity from lawsuits, as legal protections vary from country to country. But it is good journalistic practice to make clear who is making allegations or taking a particular stand. Not all information in a news story needs to be attributed, however. Naming the source of every bit of information would make stories almost incomprehensible. Information that a journalist observed directly can be stated without attribution – the source in that case is the journalist who reports what they observed. Indisputable or well-accepted facts do not need to be attributed either. A journalist could say which team won a soccer match without attribution because the final score is certain. But writing that one candidate won a political debate would need to be attributed or it would blur the line between fact and opinion.
Attribution can be placed at the beginning of a sentence to introduce information or be added after a statement. The most common verbs used for attributing human sources are “said”, “stated”, and “asked.” For records or documents, use “reported”, “claimed”, and “stated”. Direct quotes should be surrounded by quotation marks and include the source’s exact words. Paraphrased statements and indirect quotes should not be placed in quotation marks.
Here are examples of attributed statements:
“The libraries are usually crowded and filled with students around this time in the semester,” said Jonathan Chose, a first-year student at the North-West University in Potchefstroom.
A heavy cloud of smog hung over the city Wednesday, Weather SA officials said.
According to a statement from Parliament, the president will announce his pick for the vacant High Court position on Monday.
When initially referencing a human source, include the person’s full name. Use only the last name for subsequent references. You can read this article on GroundUp as an example – the minister’s name is mentioned in full in the introduction, “Minister of Basic Education Angie Motshekga”, but only the minister’s surname is mentioned in the following paragraphs.
Include important qualifiers (explanation of who the person is) with the first reference to demonstrate that the source has expertise on the topic. For example:
“Using Twitter in the classroom actually enhances student engagement,” Ethel Mavuso, a journalism lecturer at the North-West University’s Vaal Campus, said.
Notice that the direct quote with attribution uses the qualifier “journalism lecturer at the North-West University’s Vaal Campus” to indicate the source’s credibility.
Qualifiers are also used to explain a source’s relevance to the topic. The following example might be used in a news article reporting on a crime.
“It was just complete chaos in the store. The police were trying very hard to catch the looters,” eyewitness Angela Nelson said.
The qualifier “eyewitness” helps to establish Nelson’s relevance to the narrative.
Finally, attribution should flow well within the story. Avoid using long qualifiers or awkward phrases.
Protection of sources
Most interviews are conducted “on the record”, which means the journalist can use anything that is said and attribute it directly to the person who is speaking. It is important to make sure the source knows this, especially when the journalist is dealing with ordinary people who are not accustomed to being quoted in the newspaper or on the air. That is why it is compulsory that you should always identify yourself as a journalist when talking to sources and explain to them clearly that everything they say can be used in your story.
If sources prefer that some information should not be on the record, both the journalist and the source must agree in advance to the conditions under which the information can be used. An interview “off the record” or “not for attribution” generally means the information can be used in a story and the source’s words can be quoted directly, but they cannot be named. However, the source can be identified in a general way, for example, as “a foreign ministry official” or “a company engineer”, as long as the source and the journalist both agree on the description used.
Many young journalists are unsure about when to use anonymous sources. Generally speaking, it is not the role of a journalist to “protect” sources. Journalists should use facts in their stories; sources should not be ashamed to talk about facts. If the source insists on remaining anonymous for no obvious reason, you should question the source’s integrity and find someone else to interview. Many news organisations have written policies regarding the use of anonymous sources. The New York Times newspaper, for example, says, “The use of unidentified sources is reserved for situations in which the newspaper could not otherwise print information it considers reliable and newsworthy. When we use such sources, we accept an obligation not only to convince a reader of their reliability but also to convey what we can learn of their motivation.” Journalists should not be too quick to agree to talk off the record because sources sometimes try to use it as a cover for a personal or partisan attack, knowing it cannot be traced back to them. Also, using an unnamed source makes it more difficult for the audience to evaluate the information.
There are some instances where there are valid reasons for protecting a source’s identity. Minor children, for example, need protection in some cases, such as when they may be victims of crimes. Whistle-blowers (people who expose corruption or wrongdoing somewhere, thereby placing their own career or safety at risk) may also need protection. Some laws in South Africa also prescribe how journalists should treat the names of people who are being accused of crimes. This is to protect people from being falsely convicted. In South Africa, someone who has been accused of a crime may only be named once that person has appeared in court and pleaded to the charges against them. Once someone appears in court, it means there has been an investigation, and there is some proof that the person may be guilty (a prima facie case). Only then may you name them, even if you know about the case against them before the time.
Sometimes, journalists use the argument of “public interest” to name famous people before they appear in court. This is because some people are in the public eye all the time and, sometimes, the public has a right to know about things they allegedly did because their actions may affect the public good. A good example is the Oscar Pistorius murder case in South Africa. He was named in the media when he was arrested, well before he had appeared in court. Chapter 7 in this textbook discusses journalistic ethics such as this in more detail. There are different laws and journalistic codes of conduct in different countries.
Journalists should be clear about how far they will go to protect the identity of a source. In some countries, journalists may risk going to jail if they refuse to reveal information about a confidential source in a court of law. If a journalist is not willing to risk facing time in prison to protect a source, they should say so.
Journalists should also understand the use of an embargo on information provided by a source. This means the information is provided on condition that it is not to be used until a specific time. A government agency announcing a new policy may provide a written summary several hours in advance or even a day ahead. That gives journalists time to digest the information before the press conference making the policy official. Journalists who accept information under an embargo are bound to honour it unless the news becomes public before the specified time. The Minister of Finance usually also releases the budget speech to journalists before the time, so that they can start working through the information. They may only start publishing after the speech had been delivered in Parliament.
Summary
This chapter showed you the information that you need to create credible news stories (the 5Ws and the H), and how to find and interview your sources to gather enough information to make your stories credible. Once you have all the required information, you can start putting the story package together. The next chapter shows you the different ways you can put your story package together. You can write a story that can be published in print or online, but you can also create audio or visual material for broadcasting or online publication.
Reference
Mobile Journalism Manual by Corinne Podger (n.d.), published online by the Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, Singapore Lt., under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International CC BY NC-ND 4.0 license, available at: https://www.mojo-manual.org/.
