14.8: Effective Nonverbal Expression

While interculturally competent speakers watch their words and verbal expression, they are also aware of their non-verbal expression. Linguist Deborah Tannen estimated that as much as 90% of all human communication is non-verbal (cited in Neuliep, 2006). What’s more, when verbal and non-verbal messages conflict with each other, receivers tend to believe the non-verbal cues more than the verbal. This insight takes on added significance in the context of speaking to a global audience, because scholars maintain that even though a substantial portion of our non-verbal behavior, including the expression of emotion, is innate and hardly varies across cultures, much of non-verbal communication is learned and varies significantly across cultures. This section examines several different categories of non-verbal communication, how they differ across cultures, and how public speakers can use this knowledge for diverse audiences.

kinesics

Kinesic behavior, or body movement, includes gestures, hand, arm and leg movements, facial expressions, eye contact and stance or posture. Ekman and Friesen (1969) classified kinesic behavior into four broad categories: (1) emblems, (2) illustrators, (3) affect displays, and (4) regulators.

emblems and illustrators

Emblems refer to hand gestures that translate directly into words. For instance, putting index finger to lips indicates a “shhh...” requesting silence. Illustrators, on the other hand, are hand and arm movements that accent or complement the words being used, such as pounding a fist on the lectern to emphasize a verbal message.

Both emblems and illustrators differ widely across cultures. For instance, in the United States, making a circle with the thumb and index finger while extending the other fingers indicates “okay.” However, in Japan and Korea it indicates money. African-Americans and people from Mediterranean countries, the Middle East, and South America tend to be animated speakers and use hand gestures liberally, while in many Asian countries, such as Japan and China, excessive use of gestures is not encouraged. Speakers from these cultures tend to use fewer gestures and speak in a more restrained and subdued manner (Gamble & Gamble, 1998).

Why do people always gesture with their hands when they talk on the phone? ~ Jonathan Carroll

affect displays

Scholars contend that human beings tend to adopt universal facial expressions to convey basic emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, distrust and surprise. However, when, where and to whom these emotions are displayed depends on the cultural context (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). For instance, in many Mediterranean cultures, people tend to emphasize signs of grief or sadness. Conversely, the Japanese, Chinese and Koreans tend to play down public expressions of sorrow, as well as anger, confusion and disgust. Further, while a smile can be a sign of happiness, it can convey multiple meanings in some cultures. For instance, in Japan, a smile can be used to mask another emotion or to avoid answering a question, as well as a sign of happiness (Samovar et al., 2010). An understanding of these cultural differences can help public speakers to gauge an audience’s emotional response or lack thereof. Speakers can also tailor their emotional display to the cultural context.

regulators

Regulators are the actions and behaviors that manage the flow of conversation. These include eye contact, head movements, and communicator distance. One of the most important regulators in public speaking is eye contact. Determining an appropriate amount of eye contact between the speaker and audiences varies across cultures. Public speakers are encouraged to establish direct eye contact with audiences in North America, but this is often not the case in other cultures. For instance, Japanese communicators use less eye contact, as prolonged eye contact is considered rude in Japan. Eye contact is expected from receivers in Arab cultures as a mark of interest in the speaker’s words. In France, eye contact is not only frequent but often intense, and this might be intimidating to some (Cooper et al., 2007).

paralanguage

Paralanguage refers to the vocal cues, such as volume, rate and pitch that accompany spoken language. These cues contribute to the meanings people associate with the words spoken. Some paralinguistic devices, such as volume, are learned and vary across cultures. For instance, Latinos and Arabs tend to speak more loudly than people from other cultures (Gamble & Gamble, 1998). To Arab listeners a higher volume indicates strength and sincerity, while speaking too softly implies that the speaker lacks confidence or is timid. On the other hand, speaking softly is much appreciated by Asians. South Koreans avoid talking loudly in any situation, as it is seen as rude and unbecoming since it tends to draw attention to one’s self (Cooper et al., 2007).

A related and important paralinguistic device is silence. Hasegawa and Gudykunst (1998) found that culture influences the use of silence. They found that in the United States silence is used to mark a pause or break in verbal communication. When meeting strangers, Americans tend to be conscious of and uncomfortable with silence. On the other hand, for the Japanese, silence during verbal communication holds immense meaning. Since the Japanese place a lot of importance on maintaining harmony and encourage indirectness and ambiguity to maintain harmony, silence is often used to avoid directly saying “no” to a request.

Yet another paralinguistic device, pitch refers to the highness or lowness of a voice on a tonal scale. Varying pitch adds expressiveness to messages and reveals information such as whether the speaker is asking a question or expressing concern. Many Asian languages such as Mandarin, Thai and Vietnamese are tonal languages in which the same syllable can take on different meanings depending on the tone used to deliver the sound. For instance, the meaning of the word “Ma” could vary from “mother” to “horse” to “grass” or “to scold,” depending on the tone used (Neuliep, 2006). Understanding these paralinguistic devices and how they apply to public speaking situations can enhance the effectiveness of speeches.

Nothing strengthens authority so much as silence. ~ Leonardo da Vinci

physical appearance

The physical appearance of the speaker can also affect speechmaking to a diverse audience. This is because people often draw inferences about a person’s socio-economic status, gender, age and cultural background based on physical appearance (Ruben, 1992). These inferences in turn affect whether listeners are positively or negatively predisposed to the speaker.

In public speaking, the two main categories of physical appearance that could affect audience perceptions are beauty and clothing, both of which can feed ethnocentrism. For instance, in the United States, the cultural ideal of beauty tends to value the appearance of tall, slender women and men with muscular bodies. However, in many parts of Africa, plumpness is valued as a sign of beauty (Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2002). Interculturally competent speakers guard against culturally ingrained notions that could impede communication. In addition, competent speakers adapt their clothing for diverse audiences.

Two of the most important cultural issues regarding clothing are modesty and formality. Culturally acceptable levels of modesty vary from culture to culture. For example, in Muslim communities, women are often expected to wear loose fitting, flowing garments that do not reveal the contours of the body or expose parts of it (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2010), and a woman may be expected to cover her head with a scarf or a hijab. While delivering speeches to a diverse audience, competent speakers consider culturally based sartorial preferences. For instance, Hillary Clinton’s wearing of a headscarf while on a trip to Cairo was particularly appreciated in Cairo (Huffington Post, 2009).

Wearing the correct dress for any occasion is a matter of good manners. ~ Loretta Young

In terms of formality, the United States has an informal culture where professors on campuses and organizations in Silicon Valley often adopt casual dress codes. Some other cultures such as in Japan and Germany are more formal. Among corporate employees in Japan and in many Asian countries, there is a general proclivity for conservative dress styles that emphasize conforming to society’s collectivistic nature (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2010). While addressing audiences that place high importance on formal attires, competent speakers dress appropriately.

As emphasized throughout this chapter, the most important thing that interculturally competent public speakers must keep in mind is to be sensitive to differences among cultures and to respect diversity. Successful public speakers will research their audience and adapt as far as they can. At the very least, public speakers must show respect for audience diversity while preparing and delivering speeches. This section has offered a few examples of how non-verbal communication can vary across cultures. Public speakers who need to address a diverse audience must be keenly aware of these variations among cultures and employ culturally appropriate kinesic behavior, paralinguistic devices and dress appropriately.