7.4: Strategies for Effective Writing and Public Speaking
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Introduction
In addition to interacting with others, writing and public speaking are two other forms of communication important in academic and professional contexts.
Effective writing is essential to your success. Papers, presentations, essay tests, e-mails, social networking, and even occasional text messages call for your ability to communicate ideas with force and clarity.
Knowing how to deliver a presentation is also a skill essential to your success. Some people tune out during a speech. Just think of all the times you have listened to instructors, lecturers, and politicians. Remember all of the wonderful daydreams you had during their speeches. The way you plan and present your speech can determine the number of audience members who will stay with you until the end.
In this lesson, you will learn some strategies for being a more effective writer and public speaker.
Getting Started with Writing
Sometimes, the most difficult part of writing is getting started. Following are some suggestions to help you get started with your writing:
Schedule and list writing tasks. You can divide the ultimate goal—a finished paper—into smaller steps that you can tackle right away. Estimate how long it will take to complete each step. Start with the date your paper is due and work backward to the present. Say that the due date is December 1, and you have about three months to write the paper. To give yourself a cushion, schedule November 20 as your targeted completion date. Plan what you want to get done by November 1, and then list what you want to get done by October 1.
Narrow your topic. The most common pitfall is selecting a topic that’s too broad. Harriet Tubman is not a useful topic for your American history paper because it’s too broad. Covering that topic would take hundreds of pages. Instead, be more specific: Harriet Tubman’s activities as a spy for the Union Army during the American Civil War. Your topic statement can function as a working title.
Write a thesis statement. Clarify what you want to say by summarizing it in one concise sentence. This sentence, called a thesis statement , refines your working title. It also helps in making a preliminary outline.
You might write a thesis statement, such as Harriet Tubman’s activities with the Underground Railroad led to a relationship with the Union Army during the American Civil War. A thesis statement that’s clear and to the point can make your paper easier to write. Remember, you can always rewrite your thesis statement as you learn more about your topic.
A thesis statement is different from a topic. Like a newspaper headline, a thesis statement makes an assertion or describes an action. It is expressed in a complete sentence, including a verb. Diversity is a topic. Cultural diversity is valuable is a thesis statement.
Consider your purpose. Effective writing flows from a purpose. Discuss the purpose of your assignment with your instructor. Also think about how you’d like your reader or listener to respond after considering your ideas. Do you want your audience to think differently, feel differently, or take a certain action?
How you answer these questions greatly affects your writing strategy. If you want someone to think differently, make your writing clear and logical. Support your assertions with evidence. If you want someone to feel differently, consider crafting a story. Write about a character your audience can empathize with, and tell how that character resolves a problem that the audience can relate to. If your purpose is to move the reader into action, explain exactly the steps to take and the benefits for doing so.
To clarify your purpose, state it in one sentence. For example, I will define the term success in such a clear and convincing way that I win a scholarship from the publisher of this textbook.
Strategies for Effective Writing
You have identified your topic and considered your purpose and audience. That is a huge accomplishment. Next, develop and follow a plan for writing the paper. Breaking it down into smaller steps will make the writing process that much easier.
Use the following strategies to help you be a more effective and confident writer:
Do research. Research happens in two phases. In the first phase, you gain an overview of the subject. Discover the structure of your topic—its major divisions and branches. Say that you want to persuade the reader to vote for a certain political candidate. You must first learn enough about this person to summarize his background and state his stance on key issues. During the second phase, you uncover specific facts about your topic and take detailed notes.
Create an outline. An outline is a kind of map. When you follow a map, you avoid getting lost. Likewise, an outline keeps you from wandering off your topic.
To start an outline, gather a stack of 3 × 5 cards. Brainstorm ideas you want to include in your paper. Write one phrase or sentence per card. Next, experiment with the cards. Group them into separate stacks, with each stack representing one major category. After that, arrange the stacks and the cards within each stack in a logical order. Rearrange them until you discover an organization that you like. If you write on a computer, use the outlining feature of your word- processing software.
Gather your notes and outline. If you’ve planned your writing project and completed your research, you’ve already done much of the hard work. Now you can begin writing your first draft. To create your draft, gather your notes and arrange them according to your outline. Write about the ideas in your notes. Write in paragraphs, discussing one idea per paragraph. If you’ve organized your notes logically, related facts and concepts will appear close to one another.
Plan to revise a paper two or three times. Make a clean copy of each revision, and then let the last revised draft sit for at least 3 or 4 days.
During each revision, look for the following:
- A clear thesis statement
- Helpful sentences that introduce your topic, guide the reader through the major sections of your paper, and summarize your conclusions
- Sufficient details—such as quotations, examples, and statistics—that support your conclusions
- Lean sentences that have been purged of needless words
- Plenty of action verbs and concrete, specific nouns
Finally, look over your paper with an eye for spelling and grammar mistakes. If you’re using a word-processing software, take advantage of the feature that checks for such errors. Also keep in mind that even the best software will miss some mistakes. Computers still cannot replace a skilled human proofreader.
When you’re finished proofreading, take a minute to savor the result. You’ve just witnessed something of a miracle—the mind attaining clarity and resolution. That’s the aha ! in writing.
Avoiding Plagiarism
Using another person’s words, images, or other original creations without giving proper credit is called plagiarism . Plagiarism amounts to taking someone else’s work and presenting it as your own—the equivalent of cheating on a test.
To avoid plagiarism, ask an instructor where you can find your school’s written policy on plagiarism. Also review the following suggestions whenever you write:
Know the perils of “paper mills.” A quick Internet search will uncover hundreds of online business that sell term papers, essays, and book reports. Some of them offer to customize their products for an additional fee. These businesses are often called paper mills . Even so, these services are based on plagiarism.
Don’t recycle papers. Plagiarism includes turning in a paper—or portions of a paper—that you have already written for another class. If you want to draw on previous research you did, talk to your instructor first.
Identify direct quotes. If you use a direct quote from another writer or speaker, put that person’s words in quotation marks. If you do research online, you might find yourself copying words or images from a website and pasting them directly into your notes. This is the same as taking direct quotes from your source . To avoid plagiarism, identify such passages in an obvious way. Besides enclosing them in quotation marks, you could format them in a different font or color.
Paraphrase carefully. Instead of using a direct quote, you might choose to paraphrase an author’s words. Paraphrasing means restating the original passage in your own words, usually making it shorter and simpler. Students who copy a passage word for word and then just rearrange or delete a few phrases are running a serious risk of plagiarism.
Summarize carefully. For some of your notes, you may simply want to summarize your source in a few sentences or paragraphs. Be sure to write the summary in your own words.
List your sources. Remember to list a source for any material that you quote, paraphrase, or summarize. Your list of sources will appear as footnotes or endnotes in your paper. Ask your instructor about which format to use.
Identify distinctive terms and phrases. Some ideas are closely identified with their individual creators. Students who present such ideas without mentioning the individual are plagiarizing. This is true even if they do not copy words, sentence structure, or overall organization of ideas.
Submit only your own work. Turning in materials that have been written or revised by someone else puts your education at risk.
Creating a Presentation: Getting Started
In addition to writing, you may be asked at school or work to create and deliver a presentation. Many people are not comfortable with creating presentations or with public speaking.
The following strategies will help you get started with creating a presentation:
Start from your passions. If your instructor allows you to choose the topic of presentation, then choose one that you find interesting. Imagine that the first words in your presentation are, I’m here to talk to you because I feel passionately about ... . How would you complete the sentence? Turn your answer into your main topic.
Analyze your audience. Remember that audience members want to know that your presentation relates to their needs and desires. To convince people that you have something worthwhile to say, think of your main topic or point. Then, see whether you can complete this sentence: I’m telling you this because ....
Organize your presentation. List three to five questions that your audience members are likely to ask about your topic. Put those questions in logical order. Organize your presentation so that it directly answers those questions.
Aim for a lean presentation—enough words to make your point but not so many as to make your audience restless. Leave your listeners wanting more. When you speak, be brief and then be seated.
Speeches are usually organized in three main parts: the introduction, the main body, and the conclusion.
Write the introduction. Rambling speeches with no clear point or organization put audiences to sleep. Solve this problem with your introduction. The following introduction, for example, reveals the thesis and exactly what’s coming. It reveals that the speech will have three distinct parts, each in logical order:
Dog fighting is a cruel sport. I intend to describe exactly what happens to the animals, tell you who is doing this, and show you how you can stop this inhumane practice.
Whenever possible, talk about things that hold your interest. Include your personal experiences and start with a bang. Consider this introduction to a speech on the subject of world hunger:
I’m very honored to be here with you today. I intend to talk about malnutrition and starvation. First, I want to outline the extent of these problems, then I will discuss some basic assumptions concerning world hunger, and finally I will propose some solutions.
You can almost hear the snores from the audience. Following is a rewrite:
More people have died from hunger in the past 5 years than have been killed in all of the wars, revolutions, and murders in the past 150 years. Yet there is enough food to go around. I’m honored to be here with you today to discuss solutions to this problem.
Creating a Presentation: Developing your Presentation
Once you have ideas for your presentation, you can start adding details that will enhance your presentation.
Write the main body. The main body of your speech is the content, which accounts for 70 to 90 percent of most speeches. In the main body, you develop your ideas in much the same way that you develop a written paper. If you raised questions in your introduction, be sure to directly answer them in the body.
Transitions are especially important. Give your audience a signal when you change points. Do so by using meaningful pauses and verbal emphasis as well as transitional phrases such as, On the other hand, until the public realizes what is happening to children in these countries ... or The second reason hunger persists is ... .
In long speeches, recap from time to time. Also preview what’s to come. Hold your audience’s attention by using facts, descriptions, expert opinions, and statistics.
Write the conclusion. At the end of the speech, summarize your points and draw your conclusion. You started with a bang; now finish with drama. The first and last parts of a speech are the most important. Make it clear to your audience when you’ve reached the end. Avoid endings such as This is the end of my speech. A simple standby is, In conclusion, I want to reiterate three points: First, ... . When you are finished, stop talking.
Create speaking notes. Some professional speakers recommend writing out your speech in full and then putting key words or main points on a few 3 × 5 cards. Number the cards so that if you drop them, you can quickly put them in order again. As you finish the information on each card, move it to the back of the pile. Write information clearly and in letters large enough to be seen from a distance.
The disadvantage of the 3 × 5 card system is that it involves card shuffling. Some speakers prefer to use standard outlined notes. Another option is mind mapping. Even an hour-long speech can be mapped on one sheet of paper. You can also use memory techniques to memorize the outline of your speech.
Create supporting visuals. Presentations often include visuals such as PowerPoint slides and posters. With PowerPoint, you can add video clips from your computer or cell phone. These visuals can reinforce your main points and help your audience understand how your presentation is organized.
Use visuals to complement rather than replace your speaking. If you use too many visuals—or visuals that are too complex—your audience might focus on them and forget about you.
Delivering Your Presentation
Once you have developed your presentation, you are ready to deliver it. Many people have a fear of speaking in public.
The following strategies can help you deliver the most effective presentation possible:
Overcome fear of public speaking. You may not be able to eliminate fear of public speaking entirely, but you can take steps to reduce and manage it.
First, prepare thoroughly. Research your topic thoroughly. Knowing your topic inside and out can create a baseline of confidence. To make a strong start, memorize the first four sentences that you plan to deliver, and practice them many times. Delivering them flawlessly when you’re in front of an audience can build your confidence for the rest of your speech.
Second, accept any physical sensations associated with stage fright: dry mouth, pounding heart, sweaty hands, muscle jitters, shortness of breath, and shaky voice. When you fully accept sensations, they start to lose power.
Practice your presentation. The key to successful public speaking is practice. Do this with your speaker’s voice. Your voice sounds different when you talk loudly, and this fact can be unnerving. Get used to it early on. If possible, practice in the room in which you will deliver your speech. Keep an eye on the time to make sure that you stay within the limit.
Keep practicing. Avoid speaking word for word, as if you were reading a script. When you know your material well, you can deliver it in a natural way. Practice your presentation until you could deliver it in your sleep. Then, run through it a few more times.
Deliver your presentation. Before you begin, get the audience’s attention. If people are still filing into the room or adjusting their seats, they’re not ready to listen. When all eyes are on you, then begin.
Project your voice. When you speak, talk loudly enough to be heard. Avoid leaning over your notes or the podium.
Maintain eye contact. When you look at people, they become less frightening. Also, remember that it is easier for the audience to listen to someone when that person is looking at them.
Notice your nonverbal communication. Be aware of what your body is telling your audience. Contrived or staged gestures will look dishonest. Be natural. If you don’t know what to do with your hands, notice that and then don’t do anything with them.
Pause when appropriate. Beginners sometimes feel that they have to fill every moment with the sound of their voice. Release that expectation. Give your listeners a chance to make notes and absorb what you say.
Have fun. Chances are that if you lighten up and enjoy your presentation, so will your listeners. Make the grade in group presentations. When preparing group presentations, you can use
three strategies for making a memorable impression:
- Get organized. As soon as you get the assignment, select a group leader and exchange contact information. Find out how your presentation will be graded. Write a to-do list that includes all of the tasks involved in completing the assignment. Distribute tasks fairly, paying attention to the strengths of individuals in your group.
- Practice your presentation before giving it in class. Develop smooth, short transitions between individual speakers. Keep track of the time so that you stay within the guidelines for the assignment.
- Communicate with group members in an open and sensitive way. Contribute your ideas, and be responsive to the viewpoints of other members. When you cooperate, your group is on the way to an effective presentation.