2.3: What is a Theory?

As with the historical perspectives that were discussed in Chapter 1, theories provide varied and in-depth perspectives that can be used to explain the complexity of human development.

What is a Theory?

A theory is a principle, or body of interrelated thoughts, to explain or predict a number of phenomena. In general, a theory is an abstract, or speculative thought, as opposed to practice (American Psychological Association, 2024).

Several questions have been pondered by developmental theorists, such as:

• The ongoing debate regarding nature versus nurture. This discussion centers on whether development primarily arises from genetic predispositions (nature) or environmental influences (nurture).
• The level of involvement and participation in an individual's development and learning process is another lens by which theorists view development. Active learning involves hands-on experiences, exploration, and interaction with the environment, materials, and other individuals. Passive learning involves receiving information through observation, reading, or verbal direction.
• Additionally, theorists have explored the concept of continuous versus discontinuous development, questioning whether growth occurs gradually over time or if individuals undergo distinct transformations during specific stages of development.

These debates contribute to a deeper understanding of how individuals evolve and shape their identities over time.

Why are Theories Important?

Theories play a crucial role in:

• helping us understand behaviors,
• identifying developmental milestones,
• devising strategies to support each child's unique needs,
• creating engaging environments,
• establishing realistic expectations.

By leveraging this knowledge, we can develop and implement activities and experiences tailored to a child's developmental stage, a concept known as developmentally appropriate practice, which we will delve into further later in the text. "The best early childhood programs are informed by sound theory. This ensures that the aims of the program are effective and the practices have a positive impact on every child" (Blums & Kirchhofer, 2023).

Major Theories

The theories discussed in this text serve as foundational principles that inform our decision-making processes regarding the children under our care. They offer valuable insights into how we can best nurture children as they navigate the journey of learning, growth, and development. These theories each present unique hypotheses aimed at understanding and explaining various aspects of development through systematic observation and experimentation. Some theories seek to elucidate the underlying reasons behind human behavior, while others explore the timing of skill acquisition.

Let's take a look at the theories.

Foundational Theories

The following information was adapted from ECD Principles and Practices by Stephens, et. al (2023). Per Sharon Eyrich, the information was used with permission and should not be altered.

Table 2.3.1 Points and Applications by Foundational Theory

Theory	Key Points	Application
Maturational Theory Arnold Gesell 1880-1961	All children move through stages as they grow and mature On average, most children of the same age are in the same stage There are stages in all areas of development (physical, cognitive, language, affective) You can’t rush stages	There are “typical” ages and stages Understand the current stage as well as what comes before and after Give many experiences that meet the children at their current stage of development When a child is ready they move to the next stage
Ecological “Systems” Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner 1917 – 2005	There is broad outside influence on development (Family, school, community, culture, friends ….) There “environmental” influences impact development significantly	Be aware of all systems that affect child Learning environment have impact on the developing child Home, school, community are important Supporting families supports children

Topical Theories

The following information was adapted from ECD Principles and Practices by Stephens, et. al (2023). Per Sharon Eyrich, the information was used with permission and should not be altered.

Table 2.3.2 Points and Applications by Topical Theory

Psycho-Analytic Sigmund Freud 1856 – 1939	Father of Psychology Medical doctor trying to heal illness We have an unconscious Early experiences guide later behavior Young children seek pleasure (id) Ego is visible; when wounded can get defensive Early stages of development are critical to healthy development	Understand unconscious motivations Create happy and healthy early experiences for later life behaviors Know children are all about “ME” Expect ego defenses Keep small items out of toddlers' reach Treat toileting lightly
Psycho-Social Erik Erikson 1902 – 1994	Relationships are crucial and form the social context of personality Early experiences shape our later relationships and sense of self Trust, autonomy, and initiative – are the early stages of development Humans like to feel competent and valued	Provide basic trust (follow through on promises, provide stability and consistency, …) Create a sense of “belongingness” Support autonomy and exploration Help children feel confident Encourage trying things and taking safe risks See mistakes as learning opportunities
Humanistic Abraham Maslow 1908-1970	We have basic and growth needs Basic needs must be met first We move up the pyramid toward self-actualization	Make sure basic needs like nutrition, sleep, and safety are taken care of Understand movement between needs Know needs may be individual or as a group
Ethology/Attachment John Bowlby 1907-1990 Mary Ainsworth 1913 - 1999	Biological basis for development Serve evolutionary function for humankind There are sensitive periods Attachment is crucial for survival Dominance hierarchies can serve as a survival function	Understand evolutionary functions Offer positive and appropriate opportunities during sensitive periods Facilitate healthy attachments

Cognitive Theories

The following information was adapted from ECD Principles and Practices by Stephens, et. al (2023). Per Sharon Eyrich, the information was used with permission and should not be altered.

Table 2.3.3 Points and Applications by Cognitive Theory

Theory	Key Points	Application
Constructivist Jean Piaget 1896 – 1980	We construct knowledge from within Active learning and exploration Brains organize and adapt Need time and repetition Distinct stages (not mini-adults) Sensory-motor, pre-operational	Provide exploration and active learning Ask open ended questions/promote thinking Repeat often Don’t rush Allow large blocks of time Value each unique stage Provide sensory and motor experiences Provide problem solving experience
Socio-cultural Lev Vygotsky 1896 – 1934	Learning occurs within a social context Scaffolding – providing appropriate support to increase learning “Zone of proximal development” = “readiness to learn” something	Provide appropriate adult-child interactions Encourage peer interactions Provide a little help, then step back Understand when a child is ready; don’t push them or do it for them
Information Processing (Computational Theory) 1970 -	Brain is like a computer Input, process, store, retrieve Early experiences create learning pathways Cortisol – stress hormone shuts down thinking Endorphins – “happy” hormone, increases learning	Develop healthy brains (nutrition, sleep, exercise) Decrease stress, increase happiness Know sensory input (visual, auditory ….) Understand individual differences Allow time to process
Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner 1943 -	Once information enters the brain, each brain processes information differently	Provide learning experiences to meet a wide range of learning styles Help learners learn how they learn best Offer many experiences in a variety of ways

Behaviorist Theories

The following information was adapted from ECD Principles and Practices by Stephens, et. al (2023). Per Sharon Eyrich, the information was used with permission and should not be altered.

Table 2.3.4 Points and Applications by Behaviorist Theory

Theory	Key Points	Application
Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov 1849 - 1936	We respond automatically to some stimuli When we pair a neutral stimulus with the one that elicits a response we can train the subject to respond to it Over time we can “un-pair” stimulus and response	Be aware of conditioning Pair stimuli to elicit desired responses Look for pairings in undesirable behaviors
Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner 1904 – 1990	Behavior is related to consequences Reinforcement/Rewards/Punishment Goals of behavior (motivators)	Understand what is motivating behavior Reinforce behavior we want Don’t reinforce behavior we don’t want Consider small increments
Social Learning Albert Bandura 1925 - 2021	Children (and adults) learn through observation Children (and adults) model what they see	Know what children are watching Model what you want children to do

References

American Psychological Association. (2024). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Retrieved on March 24, 2024 from: https://dictionary.apa.org/theory

Blums, A. & Kirchhofer, J. (2023). Theories and program approaches. In Julian, G. et. al., Introduction to early childhood education. (pp. 3.2). LibreTexts.

Stephens, C., Peterson, G., Eyrich, S. & Paris, J. (2023). ECD Principles and Practices. LibreTexts. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Cou...er/2.03%3A_Who