14.3: Cognitive Development

Cognitive Growth

Cognitive development refers to intellectual abilities (Council for Professional Recognition, 2023), but is very much interdependent with language (Gordon & Browne, 2007). As children expand their knowledge base, they use language to listen, ask questions, and share information. In return, they use this information to expand and develop their abilities to remember, think, and reason.

Cognitive Skills

Young children are active learners who use all of their senses to make sense of the world around them. As they do so, they utilize and build upon basic skills of cognition that fall into one of nine categories (Gordon & Browne, 2016). From these categories, the professional plans activities to promote children's learning and challenge children's thinking.

Skill	Key Principles	How Professionals Support
Skills of inquiry	Abilities of children to: ask questions, hypothesize, explore, experiment, and examine, organize information by what is observed and/or heard, analyze and/or interpret information, draw conclusions, utilize available resources to investigate new ideas based on previous conclusions.	Help children construct new knowledge by building upon what they already know. This requires observation of the child's current knowledge base and developing a relationship to get to know the child. Ask open-ended questions and engage in thoughtful conversation. Model inquisitive behaviors, such as being open to new ideas and seeking out information. Guide children in reflecting on their observations and experiences by asking children to describe their activities, share what they notice, and/or express their thoughts and feelings. Rotate materials in the environment every 1-2 weeks.
Knowledge of the physical world	Understanding the properties, behaviors, and interactions of objects and materials in an environment. This is the basis of understanding cause and effect, as well as comparing and contrasting.	Provide many varied developmentally appropriate and safe materials for children to explore. Set appropriate limits and boundaries, while allowing children to test these within a safe and reasonable manner. The use of natural consequences is a great way to introduce knowledge of the physical world.
Knowledge of the social world	Refers to a child's understanding of social interactions, relationships, and societal and/or cultural norms. This includes: social awareness, interpersonal skills, social and/or cultural norms and rules, role understanding, empathy and perspective-taking, and problem-solving to resolve conflicts, negotiate, and/or cooperate in groups.	Many of the ways to support children in learning about the social world come directly from modeling and the environment. By demonstrating effective prosocial behaviors and creating a supportive environment, children develop a stronger sense of belonging within the community. Use both implicit and explicit instruction to teach social skills such as greeting others, expressing feelings, and using problem-solving. Use discussions, stories, and activities (planned and spontaneous) to explore feelings and how to respond in order to develop empathy. Specific and positive praise reinforces positive social behaviors. When children encounter conflict or challenges, help them navigate by discussing possible solutions and encouraging positive outcomes.
Classification	Is the ability to group alike objects by specific characteristics. Classification in early childhood starts as categorization based on common features (e.g. sorting by color) and progresses to hierarchical classification in broader categories (e.g. sorting by type of animal such as dog or cat).	Teaching classification should simply start with providing varied concrete, hands-on experiences and a focus on encouraging descriptive language. Language is the primary building block for classification. As children learn more about physical objects through the senses, and have an understanding of the language needed to describe objects, they can progress to simple sorting activities and matching games. Introduce new categories gradually, using visual aids and tools to help children learn how different items are grouped. Incorporate real-world examples by using natural objects and everyday items, in addition to other materials within the environment.
Seriation	Is the ability to arrange an object, or group of objects, in a logical sequence based on a property of those objects.	Introduce and make different materials and toys that distinguish between size, number, weight, and color available. Nesting blocks and cups, Montessori cylinders, seashells, nuts and bolts, color boxes, arranging things in order of time (events in a book, sequential puzzles, schedule of the school day, and following a recipe) are all great places to start.
Numbers	The concept of learning about quantity in relation to amount, degree, and/or position. Children must learn how to compare amounts first before developing one-to-one correspondence.	In infancy, the concept of numbers starts with object permanence and playing games, such as peek-a-boo, that reinforce. Toddlers begin by sorting and comparing. Therefore, hands-on experiences with materials and objects are key. Next, mathematical terms and expressions may be introduced in the form of materials, songs, books, and activities.
Symbols	Ability to use a character to represent something else.	Incorporating the opportunity for make-believe play, most creative arts to express ideas in visual/auditory representations, and description games such as "I Spy with My Little Eyes, something...." For older children, provide opportunities, such as writing their thoughts, taking dictation, graphing opinions, creating signs for use as part of play, etc.
Spatial Relationships	Concept of how objects are in relation to each other or something else. Spatial relationships develop in early infancy and continually develop in complexity of understanding through childhood.	Puzzles, blocks, scavenger hunts for shapes, geoboards, and obstacle courses are a few examples of materials and activities to support the development of spatial relationships.
Time	Time is the measurement of an object's, or objects', movement relative to another. The concept of time is composed of at least three dimensions: the present, time as a continuum, time as a sequence.	Time may be introduced using a consistent daily schedule and routines. Using verbal, or other types of, cues can help children know when it is time to transition from one activity to the next. Allow children to explore movement. Ask questions of older children about the sequencing of events, "What comes next?" or "What do we do first?". Make plans with the children and follow through with the plans based on the schedule that was discussed.

Cognitive Milestones

Figure 14.3.1 "Cognitive Skill Milestones". by Heather Carter is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Accessible version.

Brain-Based Research

While many theorists and philosophers have speculated about cognition and how children learn, our current understanding of cognitive development stems from brain-based research. According to Harvard University's Center on the Developing Child (2007), even before birth, we are "hardwired" to be able to learn. In the first few years of life, experiences allow our brain to make neural connections- over 1 million of them a second. By around age three, these connections are pruned, so "brain circuits become more efficient" and specialized to more complicated functions. However, across the lifespan, relationships and experiences are key ingredients in terms of development (Center on the Developing Child, 2007; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

So, what does this look like in a learning environment? Young children need hands-on experiences that stimulate the senses, which is why play is such an important vehicle for learning. The richer the environment, and the more purposeful, intentional interactions and experiences, the greater the number of brain connections are made (Council for Professional Recognition, 2023). From about ages four to eight, children's brains will actively seek stimulation and meaning (Gordon & Browne, 2007). By incorporating projects that focus on creativity to explore ideas, rather than memorization or worksheets, children can simultaneously satisfy the brain's appetite for learning and the need to feel industrious.

References

Center on the Developing Child (2007). The Science of Early Childhood Development (InBrief). Retrieved from www.developingchild.harvard.edu.

Council for Professional Recognition. (3rd Ed.). (2023). Essentials for working with young children.

Gould, P. & Sullivan, J. (2004). The inclusive early childhood classroom: Easy ways to adapt learning centers for all children. Gryphon House.

Gordon, A.M. & Browne, K.W. (2007). Beginning essentials in early childhood education. Thomson Delmar Learning.

Gordon, A. M., & Browne, K. W. (10th ed.) (2016). Beginnings & beyond: Foundations in early childhood education. Cengage.

National Research Council (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development, Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.). (2000). From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. National Academies Press (US).

Shonkoff, J.P. & Phillips, D.A. (Eds.) (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. The National Academies Press.

Siskin Children's Institute. (n.d.) The facts about cognitive impairment. Retrieved August 15, 2024 from: https://impactofspecialneeds.weebly.com/uploads/3/4/1/9/3419723/the_facts_about_cognitive_impairment.pdf