14.4: Communication and Language Development
- Page ID
- 218623
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Language Development
Language is a system of communication, or sounds and symbols, used by a particular group in a meaningful pattern. Languages can vary tremendously from one group to another. This includes verbal, non-verbal, and written communication means. Language is an innate characteristic of humans and is both receptive and expression (Gordon & Browne, 2007; National Center on Deaf-Blindness, n.d.; Levine & Munsch, 2024).
Receptive Language
Receptive language refers to how we understand language. It is the process by which we receive and understand communication from another person (National Center on Deaf-Blindness, n.d.). Some examples of receptive language include:
- Answering questions
- Following directions
- Understanding gestures
- Identifying objects and pictures
- Showing comprehension
- Reading
Expressive Language
Expressive language refers to how we use communication to convey our thoughts, ideas and information (National Center on Deaf-Blindness, n.d.). Some examples of expressive language include:
- Asking questions
- Using gestures, facial expressions
- Naming objects
- Vocabulary
- Articulation (how sounds and words are said)
- Using syntax (grammar rules), semantics (word/sentence meaning), and morphology (forms of words)
- Writing
Stages of Language Acquisition
Prelinguistic Stage (Response)
The prelinguistic stage, or response, ranges from birth to about six months. This is when babies attend to speech, but the noises they make are usually involuntary responses to stimuli, such as crying, whimpering, or cooing, and do not meet the definition of language, hence the term prelinguistic (Crowley & Houts-Smith, 2010). However, babies can perceive sound and are especially sensitive to some sound differences (Gordon & Browne, 2017). By hearing speech regularly, it allows the infant to develop the foundations for speech.
Want to hear an infant near the end of the prelinguistic stage?
The Babbling Stage (Vocalization)
The babbling stage, or vocalization, begins at about six months old to about one year of age. Babbling is universal in all languages and primarily uses consonant sounds of /b/, /d/, and /m/ (Levine & Munsch, 2024). Babbling peaks between 9-12 months old due to physical maturation of the mouth and tongue, so even deaf and hearing-impaired infants babble (Crowley & Houts-Smith, 2010). However, it is also during this time that infants begin to lose their ability to distinguish between sounds of their family's native language and other sounds.
Want to hear an infant in the babbling stage?
Holophrastic Stage (First Words)
The first words stage is known as holophrastic because it means a one-word sentence. It can begin as early as 10-12 months old and lasts until about 18-24 months old. Most first words have a simple structure, or patterning of sounds, such as "no" "mama", "dada", etc.
Children can understand more words than they are able to produce. Continued development of speech and vocabulary is determined by the control of motor development and the ability to match sounds with objects (Crowley & Houts-Smith, 2010). Often, because of this, children will substitute one sound for another in their own attempts at speech, or over-extend the use of a single word to mean many things. For example, "bye-bye" may refer to a salutation of departure, finishing a meal, or indicating the desire to play a game such as peek-a-boo. Additionally, we start to observe the under-extension of word use, or the use of a general word to mean a specific thing or things. For example, the word "da" might mean dog, but only the family's dog and not all dogs.
Want to hear a short compilation of infants entering the holophrastic stage?
Two-Word Stage (Sentences)
The two-word stage of language development typically occurs around 18 to 24 months of age. During this stage, a child begins to combine two words to form simple phrases or sentences, such as "more juice," "big truck," or "mommy go." These combinations express more specific ideas than single words and show that the child is starting to understand basic grammar and the relationship between words (Levine & Munsch, 2024). Over-extension and under-extension of words continues.
The two-word stage is significant because it marks the beginning of sentence formation, where children start to communicate more clearly about their needs, observations, and desires. Want to hear a child in the two-word stage?
Telegraphic Stage (Elaboration)
The telegraphic stage, or elaboration, occurs around 24 to 30 months of age. In this stage, children begin using short, simple sentences that usually consist of two, three, or more words, like "want cookie" or "daddy go work." These sentences resemble a telegram, where only the most essential words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) are used, while smaller words like "is" or "the" are often left out. This is because each word in the telegram cost money, so people used to write the shortest possible messages that still conveyed what they needed to (Crowley & Houts-Smith, 2010).
The telegraphic stage shows that children are starting to grasp basic grammar and sentence structure, even though their sentences are still simplified. Want to hear a child in the telegraphic stage?
Beyond the Telegraphic Stage (Graphic Representation)
Beyond the telegraphic stage, children start forming more complete sentences with proper grammar. They begin to use function words like "is," "the," and "and," creating sentences like "The dog is running" or "I want the red ball." Their language becomes more sophisticated, with longer sentences, correct verb tenses, and the use of pronouns. Children also start to ask questions, tell simple stories, and express more complex ideas.
By late preschool and kindergarten, reading and writing emerge by demonstrating awareness that print has meaning and power- that language becomes another entity when what is spoken can be written down. Thus, why this stage is also referred to as graphic representation.
Milestones
Figure 14.4.1 "Language and Communication Milestone from 6-weeks to 60 Months". by Heather Carter is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Accessible version.
Bilingualism
Bilingualism refers to the ability to understand and use two languages proficiently. In early childhood, bilingualism occurs when a child is exposed to and learns two languages simultaneously or sequentially (Genessee, 2008). This exposure can happen in various settings, such as at home, in the community, or in educational environments. There are two main pathways in which bilingualism occurs: simultaneous bilingualism, or when a child is exposed to two languages from birth until age three, and successive bilingualism, or when a child learns one language and is introduced to a second language later (Gordon & Browne, 2007; Genesee, 2008).
Several factors influence how well and how quickly a child becomes bilingual (Genessee, 2008; Bialystock, 2011).
- Exposure in terms of the amount and quality of language the child hears.
- Consistency in the use of both languages in all environments that child interacts with.
- Motivation and need.
- Positive reinforcement through encouragement from individuals the child has relationships with.
References
Bialystok, E. (2011). Reshaping the mind: The benefits of bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(4), 229-235.
Crowley, K. & Houts-Smith, L. (2010). TESL 551: Language acquisition [MOOC]. Minnesota State University. https://web.mnstate.edu/houtsli/tesl551/LangAcq/page1.htm
Genesee, F. (2008). Early dual language learning. Zero to Three, 29(1), 17-23. Retrieved August 25, 2024: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://www.utoledo.edu/education/grants/great-start-for-higher-education/docs/Genesee-1.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjc_Pfch5GIAxXPDzQIHWGHJlYQFnoECCwQAQ&usg=AOvVaw1L44CaERWbHDzz5mrRhnQZ
Levine, L.E. & Munsch, J. (3rd Ed.) (2024). Child development from infancy to adolescence: An active learning approach. SAGE.
National Center on Deaf-Blindness. (n.d). Receptive and expressive communication. Adapted from NTAC: The National Technical Assistance Consortium for Children and Young Adults who are deaf-blind. (2002). Communication fact sheets for parents. Retrieved August 24, 2024: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://www.nationaldb.org/media/doc/ReceptiveExpressiveCommunication_Wjlpsmp.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjmsOTS0I2IAxUELTQIHYsaEMUQFnoECDwQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2XSoC_FXBsxIiX2017fXcq