14.4.1: Supporting Communication and Language Development

Scaffolding Children's Language

Many of the ways we support children's language and literacy development overlap. The primary ways we can scaffold children's language involve the use of open-ended questions and talking regularly with children, including during play, story time and meal times.

Open-ended questions are great conversation starters and extenders, especially when they are sincere and are focused on children's interests (Council for Professional Recognition, 2023). Open-ended questions are those that cannot be answered with a simple "yes" or "no," and instead require children to think critically and express themselves more fully. For instance, asking a child, "What did you enjoy most about your playtime today?" encourages them to use descriptive language and elaborate on their experiences. This type of questioning not only promotes the development of vocabulary and sentence structure but also enhances cognitive skills like reasoning and problem-solving (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 2001).

Incorporating conversations during routine activities—such as meal times, transitions, or outdoor play—creates natural opportunities for children to practice language in a variety of contexts. This consistent exposure helps children understand the nuances of language use, such as turn-taking, tone, and the use of context to infer meaning. Moreover, by being actively engaged in meaningful conversations with adults, children learn to articulate their thoughts and feelings more effectively, fostering a deeper understanding of language and communication (Dickinson & Tabors, 2001). It also allows children to reflect on past, present, future, and imaginary events. By talking about what happens, children are more easily able to connect vocabulary to specific events, things, people, feelings, etc.

Here are some additional considerations to support oral language.

1. Practice good conversation skills, such as balancing input and active listening.
2. Talk to children throughout the day, including routines and transitions.
3. Describe what you are doing, particularly to infants to help reinforce connections of words to actions.
4. Sing songs or play soothing background music.
5. Always respond to children's attempts at communication.
6. Elaborate on children's speech, rather than trying to correct them. Grammatical and articulation errors are going to occur. What's more helpful is being respectful in the conversation, as children are hard-wired to pick up these speech pattern differences as they continue to grow and develop. Exposure to these errors, rather than correction, is what helps make these connections.
7. Hang pictures of recognizable places, things, or people within the community to have conversation about by naming and describing.
8. Show or point to materials that you are referring to as you talk about it.
9. Bring in new materials to introduce to children and help expand their vocabulary.
10. Offer extra support to children who seem reluctant to talk by engaging one-on-one, finding about more about what they like, and providing positive reinforcement when they do make attempts.

"Group Conversation About a Pineapple". by Heather Carter is licensed CC BY-NC-ND

Creating a Literacy (and Language) Rich Learning Environment

There are three key elements to a literacy (and language) rich learning environment: reading, books, and writing. How do we translate this into supportive practices?

Introducing Books and Reading to Children

Reading to children is one of the most important activities that caregivers can engage in to support their development. Books and reading should be introduced in the first few months of an infant's life. When children are read to regularly, they are exposed to a wide range of vocabulary, sentence structures, and concepts that they may not encounter in everyday conversation. This exposure is critical for building language skills, which form the foundation for later reading and writing abilities (Bus, van IJzendoorn, & Pellegrini, 1995). Reading also helps children develop their cognitive and creative skills, all of which are important for academic success and personal growth.

"Reading". by Heather Carter is licensed CC BY-NC-ND

It is recommended that caregivers read to children every day, even if it's just for a few minutes. According to the "One Million Words Project," children who are read to regularly can hear up to 1.4 million more words by the time they enter kindergarten compared to children who are not read to (Logan et al., 2019). This vast exposure to vocabulary helps children develop a richer understanding of language and enhances their ability to comprehend and use new words. As a result, children who are read to daily are better prepared for the language demands of school, and this early advantage often translates into stronger reading and writing skills later in life. For example, children who are read to often are more likely to develop strong reading skills, which are crucial for success in school and beyond (Mol & Bus, 2011). Moreover, the benefits of reading to children extend into adulthood. Adults who were read to as children tend to have higher levels of literacy and are more likely to engage in reading for pleasure, which can contribute to lifelong learning and intellectual development (Sénéchal & LeFevre, 2002).

Children's Book Categories

Having a variety of children's books in the classroom is crucial for ensuring all children feel represented and included. Different types of books, such as multicultural stories and non-fiction, help children see themselves and others in what they read, fostering empathy and cultural awareness. When children can connect with the stories, it encourages a love of reading and a deeper understanding of diverse experiences. This approach supports both literacy development and the creation of an inclusive learning environment (Dyson, 2013).

Type of Book	What It Is	Common Examples
Picture Books	Books that use illustrations and simple text to tell a story.	Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak; The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle
Board Books	Durable books with thick pages, designed for infants and toddlers.	Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown; Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? by Bill Martin Jr. & Eric Carle
Cloth and Vinyl Books	Tend to be indestructible, washable, and safe for infants. Many have flaps, textures, and colorful images.	Pat the Bunny by Dorothy Kunhardt; Indestructibles series by various authors
Concept Books	Books that introduce basic concepts like colors, shapes, and numbers.	First 100 Words by Priddy Books; Mouse Paint by Ellen Stoll Walsh; From Head to Toe by Eric Carle
Alphabet Books	Books that focus on teaching the alphabet.	Chicka Chicka Boom Boom by Bill Martin Jr. & John Archambault; Eating the Alphabet by Lois Ehlert
Counting Books	Books that teach numbers and counting through visual aids.	Ten Little Ladybugs by Melanie Gerth; One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish by Dr. Seuss
Rhyming Books	Books that use rhyme and rhythm to engage children.	Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss; Llama Llama Red Pajama by Anna Dewdney; Goodnight Construction Site by Sherri Duskey Rinker; Little Blue Truck by Alice Shertle
Storybooks	Books that tell a narrative with a clear structure. Many touch on topics of social and emotional concepts such as feelings, friendship, school, etc.	The Gruffalo by Julia Donaldson; The Tale of Peter Rabbit by Beatrix Potter; Tea for Ruby by Sarah Ferguson
Fairy Tales and Folktales	Traditional stories with magical elements and moral lessons.	Cinderella by Charles Perrault; The Three Little Pigs (various versions)
Informational (Non-Fiction) Books	Books that provide factual information on various topics.	National Geographic Little Kids First Big Book of Animals by Catherine D. Hughes; The Magic School Bus series by Joanna Cole
Biography Books	Books that tell the stories of real people's lives.	I Am Rosa Parks by Brad Meltzer; Who Was Martin Luther King, Jr.? by Bonnie Bader
Interactive Books	Books that require reader participation, like lift-the-flap or touch books.	Dear Zoo by Rod Campbell; Where's Spot? by Eric Hill
Wordless Books	Books that tell a story solely through illustrations.	Flotsam and Tuesday by David Wiesner; A Ball for Daisy by Chris Raschka; The Red Book by Barbara Lehman
Poetry Books	Collections of poems for children, often with playful language.	Where the Sidewalk Ends by Shel Silverstein; A Light in the Attic by Shel Silverstein
Multicultural Books	Books that reflect diverse cultures and experiences.	Last Stop on Market Street by Matt de la Peña; The Name Jar by Yangsook Choi; The Colors of Us by Karen Katz
Early Readers	Books designed for children just starting to read independently.	Frog and Toad Are Friends by Arnold Lobel; Henry and Mudge series by Cynthia Rylant
Books on Tender Topics	Books focused on experiences such as death, parent separation or divorce, illness, deployment, etc. that may raise strong emotions (Council for Professional Recognition, 2023).	Nana Upstairs by Tomie DePaolo; My Dad's Hero by Recbecca Christiansen; The Family Book by Todd Parr

Choosing Quality Children's Books

Choosing appropriate and quality books for young children is essential for fostering their love of reading and supporting their development.

For infants, books should be:

• Made of safe materials, such as vinyl, board, or washable cloth.
• Board books with simple, high-contrast images and repetitive text are ideal, as they help capture the infant's attention and introduce basic concepts such as colors, shapes, and numbers (Ghoting & Martin-Díaz, 2013).
• The use of black and white books early in infancy helps capture their interest, as their vision is low and underdeveloped compared to that of a toddler.
• Additionally, books with tactile elements, like different textures or flaps to lift, can engage infants' senses and encourage interactive exploration.

"Toddler Library" owned by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND

For toddlers, books with simple, predictable stories and engaging illustrations are best. Toddlers enjoy books with familiar topics, such as animals, family, and daily routines.

• Repetition and rhyme are particularly effective for this age group, as they help toddlers learn new words and understand story structure.
• Interactive books that invite participation, such as those with movable parts or questions, can also be very engaging (Ghoting & Martin-Díaz, 2013).

As children move into the preschool years, their interests and comprehension levels expand.

• Books with more complex stories, a broader range of vocabulary, and more detailed illustrations can help support their growing cognitive and language abilities.
• It's also important to choose books that reflect diversity and include characters and situations that children can relate to, as well as those that introduce them to different cultures and experiences (Nemeth & Brillante, 2011).

When evaluating children's books in general, consider several factors to ensure quality.

• The language should be rich and engaging, with appropriate vocabulary for the child's age and development level.
• The story should be well-structured, with a clear beginning, middle, and end.
• Illustrations play a critical role in children's books, so they should be large, colorful, and compliment the text.
• It's important to assess the themes and messages of the book. Quality children's books often address important social and emotional topics, such as friendship, kindness, and problem-solving, in ways that are accessible and meaningful to children (Nemeth & Brillante, 2011). However, themes might also be reflected in everyday life that enable children to connect with their own experiences.
• The book should be free of all bias- including gender, ethnicity, age, family structure, culture, abilities, sexual orientation, and income status.
• Look for books that have stood the test of time or have received recognition, such as awards, as these are often indicators of quality literature for children. Consider looking at Caldecott award winning books. The Caldecott award is given to books with the best illustrations each year.
• Lastly, identify what the purpose of the book may serve. If it is to promote a toy, television show, movie, or merchandise, it may not be the best choice.

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Pause to Reflect Would you classify the following book, based on title, as a quality children's book? Why or Why not?

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Learning about Writing

The stages of writing in early childhood show how children gradually learn to write, starting with simple scribbles and moving toward more recognizable letters and words. These stages are important because they help children develop the skills they need for reading and writing. As children progress from making random marks to forming letters and sentences, they are building the basics of literacy. Understanding these stages helps parents and professionals support children's learning by giving them the right activities and encouragement at each step.

Stage	Age	Key Concepts	Example(s)
Pre-writing skills	birth to age 12-18 months	Fine-motor and cognitive skills that are developed before writing emerges. Also apart of pre-writing skills is developing print awareness, or the understanding that written words have meaning and power. By displaying labels that are consistent with the type of print that is being taught in the local school district, continuity of learning is more consistently reinforced. For example, block style printing is closest to Century Gothic font so in many programs, labels are typed and printed in Century Gothic font.	Eye-hand coordination Visual tracking Planning Print awareness
Early (or Random) Scribbling	Starts around 12-18 months	Experiment making marks on paper (or other surfaces) using various writing tools, such as crayons. Scribbles are random and lack any recognizable shapes or patterns. Focus is on the physical action of making marks, or the cause and effect for using a tool to create and communicate.	"Autumn". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Controlled Scribbling	Around age 24-30 months	Scribbling becomes more deliberate, organized due to better control over hand movements. Might repeat certain types of marks such as circular motions or lines. Starts to lead into more recognizable images and in attempting to create something specific.	"Marker Circles". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Basic Forms	About 3-4 years-old	Creating more recognizable shapes that usually have complex meaning assigned to them by the child. Beginning of symbolic representation of thoughts and ideas.	"Apple Tree". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Pictorial	About 4-5 years-old	Combining shapes to create more detailed images. Children's drawings may start to tell a story or represent scenes from their understanding of the world around them. Color is used more purposefully, additional details are added to drawings such as facial features, limbs, etc. Notice the eyelashes on mom's face in the example. Space and perspective representation improves- may attempt to place objects in relation to one another in space.	"Mama Sitting on a Chair". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Letters and Words	Can start anywhere from ages 3-5+ years-old	Begins to use letters in their writing, usually by writing the letters in their name first. Makes pretend letters by copying familiar letter shapes. Understands some words are made of symbols that are shorter and some words are made of symbols that are longer, resulting in scribbles changing shape and direction (Robertson, 2007).	"Letters". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND

Writing Opportunities

Including writing opportunities throughout the day is crucial for young children's development, as it helps to build many foundational skills. Regular writing activities enable children to practice fine motor skills, expand their vocabulary, and develop an understanding of the relationship between spoken and written language (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2013). Integrating writing into daily routines also encourages creativity and allows children to convey their thoughts and experiences in a structured way, laying the groundwork for future academic success (Dyson, 2013). Here are a few ways professionals may encourage daily writing with children (Byington & Kim, 2017; Council for Professional Recognition, 2023):

• Practice name writing.
  • Have a sign-in and/or sign-out sheet for children to write, or attempt, their names.
  • Have children start by signing the first letter of their name or scribbling with symbols.
  • Use peers to help with the process.
  • Have children sign their work, such as works of art.
• As a professional, model the use of writing.
  • Complete observation records in front of the children.
  • Help children dictate their thoughts.
  • Think aloud when writing so children can hear the process.
  • Label items throughout the room.
  • Share functional phrases and/or signs, such as how many children can play in a learning center at a time.
  • Send class thank you notes to program visitors.
• Experiment with a variety of tools as children are developmentally ready, but especially as they approach age 3.
• Read books that promote writing letters, stories, messages, and lists.
• Display children's writing samples in the environment.
• Focus on the process of writing, not just the product.

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Promoting Literacy within the Learning Centers

Below is a table that identifies various learning areas in an early childhood classroom along with suggested materials that could support writing and literacy:

Learning Center	Example Materials to Support Writing and Literacy Development	Promotion in Action
Writing/Publishing	Pencils, crayons, markers Line and unlined paper, notepads Alphabet charts and word cards Letter stamps and ink pads Story prompts or writing prompts Mini whiteboards and dry erase markers	"Word Board". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Reading Area/Library	A variety of books from all different categories Comfortable seating (pillows, rug, bean bags, etc.) Magnetic letters and letter boards Book-theme writing prompts Story sequence cards for retelling stories	"Preschool Library". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Dramatic Play	Clipboards with paper and pencils Recipe cards, menus, shopping lists Pretend mail (envelopes, stamps) Notepads for taking orders or writing notes Telephone and message pad set	"Fruit Name Cards". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Art	Blank paper, sketchpads Colored pencils, markers, crayons Stamps and ink pads Storybook-making materials (blank books, staplers, binding materials) Alphabet stencils or molds and play dough Books on different types of art	"Sunflowers". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Science/Discovery	Observation journals and pencils Labeling materials (stickers, tags, etc.) Fact books or picture dictionaries Magnifying glasses with dry erase boards and markers Vocabulary cards related to scientific concepts Dictated thoughts Graphing and charting that is completed by children signing their name/making their mark	"Weather Literacy Exploration". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Blocks and/or Manipulatives	Blueprint paper and pencils Labels for buildings (e.g. signs for "school" or "hospital") Story cards to inspire building-related story telling Magnetic letters for labeling structures Journals for recording what was built and why	"Counting and Writing". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Outside	Sidewalk chalk Clipboards and pencils for nature journaling Alphabet rocks or outdoor word games Weather chart and documenting observations Sign-making materials to label items, such as flowers or vegetables in a garden	"Playground Scribbling". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND
Technology Area (Preschool and older)	Computer with limited screen time to play various language and/or literacy games or use word processing software Audio books Dictaphone or other recording devices Keyboarding practice tools or games	"Office Work". by Heather Carter and is licensed CC BY-NC-ND

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Supporting Dual Language Learners

Supporting dual language learners (DLLs) in early childhood requires thoughtful strategies that respect and build upon their linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Professionals can create an inclusive environment by incorporating both the home language and English in daily activities, ensuring that DLLs feel valued and understood. Providing visual supports, such as labeled pictures and bilingual books, can help bridge language gaps and make content more accessible. It is also beneficial to encourage peer interactions, where children can learn from one another through collaborative play and shared experiences.

Scaffolding techniques, such as modeling language use, repeating key phrases, and offering sentence starters, can help DLLs gain confidence in using English while still supporting their home language. Additionally, creating opportunities for family involvement allows parents to contribute to their child’s language development and reinforces the importance of maintaining their home language.

References

Bus, A. G., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Pellegrini, A. D. (1995). Joint book reading makes for success in learning to read: A meta-analysis on intergenerational transmission of literacy. Review of Educational Research, 65(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543065001001

Byington, T.A. & Kim, Y. (2017). Promoting preschoolers emergent writing. Young Children, 72(5). Retrieved August 29, 2024: https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/nov2017/emergent-writing

Dickinson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (Eds.). (2001). Beginning literacy with language: Young children learning at home and school. Paul H Brookes Publishing.

Dyson, A. H. (2013). Rewriting the basics: Literacy learning in children's cultures. Teachers College Press.

Ghoting, S. N., & Martin-Díaz, P. A. (2013). Early literacy storytimes@your library: Partnering with caregivers for success. American Library Association.

Logan, J. A. R., Justice, L. M., Yumus, M., & Chaparro-Moreno, L. J. (2019). When children are not read to at home: The million word gap. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 40(5), 383-386. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000657

Mol, S. E., & Bus, A. G. (2011). To read or not to read: A meta-analysis of print exposure from infancy to early adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 267-296. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021890

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2013). Developmentally appropriate practice: Focus on preschoolers. NAEYC.

Nemeth, K., & Brillante, P. (2011). Many languages, one classroom: Teaching dual and English language learners. Gryphon House.

Robertson, R. (2007, July/August). The meaning of marks: Understanding and nurturing young children’s writing development. Child Care Exchange, 176, 40–44.

Sénéchal, M., & LeFevre, J.-A. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children's reading skill: A five-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73(2), 445-460. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00417

Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (2001). Emergent literacy: Development from prereaders to readers. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 1, pp. 11-29). Guilford Press.