20.2.1.1: Parents and Families

Those Closest to Us

Families bring unique traits and qualities to the parenting relationship, including a parent's age, gender identity, personality, developmental history, beliefs, knowledge about parenting and child development, and mental and physical health. Personalities also affect parenting behaviors.[1] Differences in caretaking reflect differences in parenting goals, values, resources, and experiences.[2] Parents who are more agreeable, conscientious, and outgoing are warmer and provide more structure to their children. Parents who are more agreeable, less anxious, and less negative support their children's autonomy more than anxious and less agreeable parents.[3]

Parents' developmental histories (their experiences as children) also affect parenting strategies. Parents may learn parenting practices from their parents; for example, fathers whose own parents provided monitoring, consistent and age-appropriate discipline, and warmth are more likely to provide this constructive parenting to their children (Kerr, Capaldi, Pears, & Owen, 2009). Patterns of negative parenting and ineffective discipline also appear from one generation to the next.[1] Regardless of parents' specific choices, families play a pivotal role in exposing a child to early cultural learning. Many researchers believe that parents/families serve as the single, most crucial enculturation agent in any child's life.[2]

Family Functions

Many family functions mirror parenting tasks, goals, and responsibilities. It is important to understand how family functions and parenting tasks impact each other. The following is a list of somewhat universal family functions (almost all families worldwide have some of these in common).[1] :

• Economic support: providing basic needs, such as food, shelter, clothing, etc.
• Emotional support: providing love, comfort, intimacy, companionship, nurturing, belongingness, etc.
• Socialization of children: rearing children, parenting, helping children function to the best of their abilities within their society
• Control of sexuality: defining and managing when and with whom (e.g., marriage) sexuality occurs
• Procreation: contributing to the continuation of society and offspring
• Ascribed status: providing a social identity (e.g., social class, race, ethnicity, kinship, religion, etc.) (Hammond, Cheney, Pearsey, 2015)

While some parenting priorities are culturally universal, many childrearing values and habits are culture-specific. Culture-specific influences on caretaking choices can be subtle or overt and promote a narrative of what parents "ought" to do to successfully raise their children. For example, American parents are encouraged to enculturate a sense of independence and assertiveness in children, while Japanese parents prioritize self-control, emotional maturity, and interdependence (Bornstein, 2012). Every society places expectation on caretakers as enculturation agents to raise their young in ways that promote culture-specific goals and expectations.[2]

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[1] Parenting and Family Diversity Issues by Diana Lang and Marissa L. Diener is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA

[2] Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed CC BY-NC-SA

[3] Parenting and Family Diversity Issues by Diana Lang and Marissa L. Diener is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA

[4] Kuppens, S and Ceulemans, E. Parenting Styles: A Closer Look at a Well-Known Concept. Is licensed CC: BY

[5] Child Characteristics is adapted from "The Developing Parent" by Marisa Diener, licensed CC BY NC SA

[6] California Department of Education, Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Program Guidelines, Second Edition by the California Department of Education is used with permission