8.1: Natural Environments
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- Explain the mechanisms of east Asia's vast landscape and how it varies.
- Identify the significance of the major river basins and political borders of east and southeast Asia.
- Explain the tectonic dynamics as it relates to the Ring of Fire and associated tsunamis.
East and Southeast Asia's Physical Barriers
The region of East and Southeast Asia is divided from the rest of Asia by a number of formidable physical barriers. In the north, Mongolia’s Altay Mountains, the Mongolian Plateau, and the Gobi Desert separate the region from Russia. In the south, the Himalaya Mountains divide China from South Asia and contain the world’s highest mountain, Mount Everest. These mountains are so high, in fact, that they form the Gobi Desert by preventing rainfall from passing over South Asia into Central Asia. In the southeast, the Arkan Mountains and Naga Hills, which stretch across Myanmar and India, and the rolling hills of China’s Yunnan Plateau separate Southeast Asia from the rest of the continent. In general, this is a realm of relatively high relief, meaning there are significant changes in elevation on the landscape. Even the islands of this region have a rugged topography, from Japan’s Mount Fuji to Indonesia’s Mount Carstensz.
The rivers of this region have supported both ancient cultures and modern societies providing irrigation for agriculture, river transportation, and in some cases, hydropower. Asia’s longest river, the Yangtze, flows through central China; the economic activity surrounding its river valley generates around one-fifth of the entire country’s gross domestic product (GDP). In 2003, the Chinese government built the Three Gorges Dam, the world’s largest hydroelectric power station, which spans the river. China’s other major river, the Huang He River, also known as the Yellow River, flows through the highlands of Western China before discharging in Northeastern China. It was on the banks of the Huang He that Chinese civilization first began. In Southeast Asia, the region is dominated by the Mekong and Irrawaddy Rivers. The Mekong River, one of the most biodiverse rivers in the world, has been heavily dammed, impacting the area’s ecology, and plans are underway to dam the Irrawaddy in several places. In addition, both the Mekong and the Irrawaddy originate in China, presenting issues over river flow and ownership.
East Asia's Vast Landscape
East Asia is surrounded by a series of mountain ranges in the west, Mongolia, and Russia in the north, and Southeast Asia to the south. The Himalayas border Tibet and Nepal; the Karakoram Ranges, Pamirs, and the Tian Shan Mountains shadow Central Asia; and the Altay Mountains are next to Russia. The Himalayan Mountains are among the world’s highest mountain ranges, and Mt. Everest is the planet’s tallest peak. These high ranges create a rain shadow effect, generating the dry arid conditions of type B climates that dominate western China. The desert conditions of western China give rise to a sizeable uninhabitable region in its center. Melting snow from the high elevation feeds many of the streams that transition into the major rivers that flow toward the east.
Created by tectonic plate action, the many mountain ranges are also home to earthquakes and tremors that are devastating to human livelihood. The Indian tectonic plate is still pushing northward into the Eurasian plate, forcing the Himalayan ranges upward. With an average elevation of fifteen thousand feet, the Tibetan Plateau is the largest plateau region of the world. It has high elevations and type H climates. The plateau is sparsely populated, and the only places with human habitation are the river valleys. Lhasa is the largest city of the sparsely populated region. Sometimes called “the Roof of the World,” the Tibetan Plateau is a land of superlatives. The small amount of precipitation that occurs often comes in the form of hailstorms mixed with wind. Its landscape is generally rocky and barren.
The vast arid regions of western China extend into the Gobi Desert between Mongolia and China. Colder type D climates dominate the Mongolian steppe and northern China. The eastern coast of the Asian continent is home to islands and peninsulas, which include Taiwan and the countries of Japan and North and South Korea. North Korea’s type D climates are similar to the northern tier of the United States, comparable to North Dakota. Taiwan is farther south, producing a warmer tropical type A climate. The mountainous islands of Japan have been formed because of tectonic plates and are prone to earthquakes. Since water moderates temperature, the coastal areas of East Asia have more moderate temperatures than the interior ones. A type C climate is dominant in Japan, but the north has a colder type D climate. The densely populated fertile river valleys of central and southeastern China are matched by contrasting economic conditions. Fertile alluvial soils and moderate temperatures create excellent farmland that provides enormous food production to fuel an ever-growing population.
Biomes of East and Southeast Asia
The biome setting of the collective region is vast with great diversity, provided that east and southeast Asia's landscape extends from just south of the North Pole to the equator, and well into the Southern Hemisphere. Biodiversity, climate, and a complexity of landforms illustrate distinctive attributes that makeup the physical identity and greatly influence the habitable identity of the region. Although, there are vast river streams, plate boundaries, ocean currents, and vegetation similarities that connect the region throughout most parts.
Tropical Biomes: Rainforests, Savannas, and Monsoons of Southeast Asia
The latitude positioning lying between 20°N and 20°S of the equator is where all the countries of Southeast Asia reside. Although, nations like Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia are positioned within island zones that are closer to the equator. The positioning of the listed nations in proximity to the equatorial region of Southeast Asia is where a Wet Tropical Rainforest (Af) climate is present. The region’s climate indicates that there is very minimal seasonality, with year-round rainfall, warmth, humidity, and high constant heat insulation. Nations like Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Cambodia are located within continental zones that are closer to the periphery of the tropical climate zones north and south of the equator. The listed continental nations tend to experience a combination of climate factors that consists of tropical savannas, rainforests, and monsoons within their established border regions. The presence of a larger tropical savanna climate is most dominant across the continental region where seasonality is most commonly present between wet summer and dry winter season spell periods.
The northern continental winds and southern warmer winds interact in a manner that creates differential heating, thus inducing the development of reversal seasonal monsoonal winds. The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a significant factor of influence upon precipitation patterns within the region as low pressure and high pressure meet in a common space of uplifting and downshifting air movement. Variations in pressure systems intensifies convection, which results in precipitation throughout as the transfer of latent heat moves from the lower to higher regional latitudes.[1] Throughout the region in entirety, temperature ranges between 77°-95°F annually between equatorial tropics and the tropical savannas periphery regions.
A perception of Southeast Asia being a tropical haven is partly supported by 15% of the world’s remaining tropical forests reside within the region. A common landscape feature of the region is the variation in jungle tree cover that often begins at the lowland coastlines and extends across the densely covered highlands of both the region’s continental and island areas. The tropical setting and dense jungle cover of the region is a distinguishable attribute of the region from nearby China that is filled with subtropical plains as a defining landscape feature. The region's lush and fertile vegetation is a primary reason for strong agrarian-based societies that have maintained a great presence in the region. High humidity, changing elevations, and rich vegetation is a defining characteristic of the region’s identity and greater landform makeup. Maritime trading in proximity to the region’s landscape between the larger nations of India and China are also components emphasize Southeast Asia’s uniqueness.[2]

Mid-Latitude and Temperate Biomes of East Asia
Most of China’s population lives in its eastern region, called China Proper, with type C climates, freshwater, and good soils. China Proper has dense population clusters that correspond to the areas of type C climate that extend south from Shanghai to Hong Kong. Around the world, most humans have gravitated toward type C climates. These climates have produced fertile agricultural lands that provide an abundance of food for the enormous Chinese population. To the south, the temperatures are warmer, with hot and humid summers and dry, warm winters. The climates of China Proper are conducive for human habitation, which has transformed the region into a highly populated human community. The North China Plain at the mouth of the Yellow River (Huang He River) has productive farmland and is the most densely populated region in China.
Northwest of Beijing is Inner Mongolia and the Gobi Desert, a desert that extends into the independent country of Mongolia. Arid type B climates dominate the region to the southern half of Mongolia. The northern half of Mongolia is colder with continental type D climates. In the higher elevations of the highlands in western Mongolia, there is a section of type H highland climates. Its climate and location identify Mongolia as a landlocked country in the northern latitudes with a low level of precipitation. The areas of type D climate that extend north from Beijing through Northeast China at times receive more precipitation than northern Mongolia. Northeast China features China’s vast forests and excellent agricultural land. Many of China’s abundant natural mineral resources are found in this area. Balancing mineral extraction with the preservation of agricultural land and timber resources is a perennial issue.
Lying north of the Great Wall and encompassing the autonomous region of Inner Mongolia is the vast Mongolian steppe, which includes broad flat grasslands that extend north into the highlands. North China includes the Yellow River basin as well as the municipalities of Beijing and Tianjin. Areas around parts of the Yellow River are superb agricultural lands, including vast areas of loess that have been terraced for cultivation. Loess is extremely fine silt or windblown soil that is yellow in this region. Deciduous forests continue to exist in this region, despite aggressive clearcutting for agricultural purposes. The Great Wall of China rests atop hills in this region.
Most of western China is arid, with a type B climate. Western China has large regions like the Takla Makan Desert that are uninhabited and inhospitable because of hot summers and long cold winters exacerbated by the cold winds sweeping down from the north. In a local Uyghur language, the name Takla Makan means, “You will go in, but you will not go out.” To the far west are the high mountains bordering Central Asia that restrict travel and trade with the rest of the continent. Northwestern China is a mountainous region featuring glaciers, deserts, and basins.
The central portion of China Proper is subtropical. This vast region includes the southern portion of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang River) and the cities of Shanghai and Chongqing. Alluvial processes give this area prime agricultural land. Its climate is warm and humid in the summers with mild winters; monsoons create distinct summer rainy seasons. Tropical China lies in the extreme south and includes Hainan Island and the small islands that neighbor it. Annual temperatures are higher here than in the subtropical region, and rainfall amounts brought by the summer monsoons are at times very substantial. Low mountains and hills characterize this area.
Southeast Asia's Rivers, Borders, and Deltas
The rivers streams, water bodies, and political borders that makeup southeast Asia have an interesting history regarding its collective importance to human settlement and developmental identity. The water bodies within southeast Asia have been and continue to be a primary factor for resource accessibility, land dispute, and historical significance for human settlement. Despite human dynamics associated with the region's waterbodies, biodiversity thrives and the natural processes that continue to shape the landscape remain highly active.
River Streams
There are three significant rivers of the region that illustrate stories for marine life, ecosystems, and human inhabitants. The Mekong, Red, and Irrawaddy, are longest river streams within the region. All three rivers are located on the mainland and have their headwaters in the high elevations of Himalayan ranges of China. The Mekong River makes its way from the high Himalayas in China and helps form the political borders of Laos and Thailand on its way through Cambodia to Vietnam where it creates a giant delta near Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). The Red River flows out of China and through Hanoi to the Red River delta on the Gulf of Tonkin. The Irrawaddy River flows through the length of Burma providing for the core area of the country. Another major river of the mainland is the Chao Phraya of Thailand. With its many tributaries, the Chao Phraya creates a favorable core area that is home to the largest population of the country. Many other rivers can be found on both the mainland and the insular region. The rivers transport water and sediments from the interior to the coasts, often creating large deltas with rich soils that are major agricultural areas. Multiple crops of rice and food products can be grown in the fertile river valleys and deltas. The agricultural abundance is needed to support the ever-increasing populations of the region.
Borders and Deltas
Various countries within the region have the appearance of complex asymmetrically shaped political borders by comparison to outer region nations. Regions like Africa, western Europe, North America, and South America have various nations with more evenly shaped square or rectangular political borders. The history of conquest and settlement have played a significant role in shaping the region for human inhabitants, but the region’s three primary river streams illustrate a unique design of national bordering. In reference to the continental area of Southeast Asia, the Mekong River partially forms and connects the borders of Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam. The Mekong River meanders in a winding course of direction from the Chinese Himalayas throughout Southeast Asia with several tributaries before letting out into the South China Sea. Regional rivers transport sediments from the continental interior to the coasts where vast deltas are formed and enrich soil fertility for agricultural purposes.

River Basins of China
Two major river systems provide fresh water to the vast agricultural regions of the central part of China Proper. The Yellow River (Huang He River) is named after the light-colored silt that washes into the river. It flows from the Tibetan highlands through the North China Plain into the Yellow Sea. Dams, canals, and irrigation projects along the river provide water for extensive agricultural operations. While wheat, sorghum, corn, and soybeans are common with vegetables, fruit, and tobacco grown in smaller plots. The North China Plain must grow enough food to feed its one thousand people per square mile average density. This plain does not usually produce a food surplus because of the high demand from the large population of the region. Beijing borders the North China Plain. Its nearest port, Tianjin, continues to expand and grow, creating an economic center of industrial activity that relies on the peripheral regions for food and raw materials. Cotton is an example of a key industrial crop grown here.
The Yangtze River (Chang Jiang River) flows out of the Tibetan Plateau through the Sichuan Province, through the Three Gorges region and its lower basin into the East China Sea. Agricultural production along the river includes extensive rice and wheat farming. Large cities are often located along this river, including Wuhan and Chongqing. Nanjing and Shanghai are situated near the delta on the coast. Shanghai is the largest city in China and is a growing metropolis. The Three Gorges Dam of the Yangtze River is the world’s largest dam. It produces a large percentage of electricity for central China. Oceangoing ships can travel up the Yangtze to Wuhan and, utilizing locks in the Three Gorges Dam, these cargo vessels can travel all the way upriver to Chongqing. The Yangtze River is a valuable and vital transportation corridor for transporting goods between periphery and core and between the different urban centers of activity. Sichuan is among the top five provinces in China in terms of population and is dependent on the Yangtze River system to provide for its needs and connect it with the rest of China.
Northeast China was formerly known as Manchuria, named after the Manchu ethnic group, which had dominated the region in Chinese history. Two river basins create a favorable industrial climate for economic activity. The lower Liao River Basin and the Songhua River Basin cut through Northeast China, along the cities of Harbin and Shenyang to be located there. This region is known as the Northeast China Plain. It has extensive farming activities located next to an industrial landscape of smokestacks, factories, and warehouses. Considerable mineral wealth and iron ore deposits in the region have augmented the industrial activities and have created severe environmental concerns because of excessive air and water pollution. In its zenith in the 1970s, this was China’s leading steel production area, but the region is being reduced to a rustbelt since many of China’s manufacturing centers are now being developed in the southern regions of China Proper.
Plate Tectonics and Natural Hazards
The vast natural distribution of regional island nations and connecting continental nations share a commonality beyond climatology and simple proximity. Majority of the region’s natural landscape is positioned within areas of high tectonic activity along the western portion of the total 24,900 miles stretching Pacific Ring of Fire. In total, the Ring of Fire is known to be responsible for approximately 90% of global earthquakes. The ongoing and frequent tectonic collision of landscapes presents a region of instability regarding natural hazards. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS) earthquake database, within the last 50 years Southeast Asia has experienced over 13,426 earthquakes with an intensity between 4.1-6.0 magnitude. Another component of tectonic activity within the region is volcanic eruptions that also play a significant role in shaping the region’s landscape. In 1991, Mt. Pinatubo erupted, spewing ash and smoke into the atmosphere causing a noticeable disruption in short-term global climate. The occurrence of earthquakes along the Ring of the Fire creates the development for the not so anomaly of advancing tsunamis ocean waves that can reach 100 feet in height. The high prevalence of earthquake occurrences upon the region’s landform areas and its inhabitants, as it relates to the proximity of the Ring of Fire, continues to showcase a region of random instability.

Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic activity is prevalent throughout the region, especially as it pertains to islandic area of southeast Asia that is positioned within the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Ring of Fire is where the highest number of active volcanoes are located, which also coincides with the inhabited landmasses of islandic southeast Asia. In 1815, Indonesia’s Mount Tambora volcano erupted and caused global temperatures to cool significantly, which resulted in crop failure that extended as far as the Mediterranean. In 1883, the volcanic island of Krakatoa, located between the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra, erupted violently to the point of the volcano collapsing. The devastation of this volcanic event led to the death of over tens of thousands of nearby human inhabitants. The sound of the volcano’s eruption is still considered the loudest sound in modern history that can be heard over 3,000 miles away. The intensity of volcanic occurrences in the region have historically caused mass destruction upon inhabited spaces, in addition to having an impact upon global natural processes.
Tsunamis
With a variation of natural hazards that can take place at any time from the root of tectonic activity, the subsequent occurrence of tsunamis can with little to no warning of advancing. Tsunamis tend to occur because of ocean floor earthquakes as the seafloor crust thrusts upward upon a seismic event. Thus, generating power and intensity upon ocean wave movement before eventually crashing regional shorelines causing devastation. Due to the high prevalence of seismic activity within the collective region, tsunami devastation is a highlighted attribute of Southeast Asia’s landscape. Historical occurrences of tsunamis within the region have proven to produce a somewhat usual “expected” occurrence of destruction that aids the instability of Southeast Asia’s habitable landscape. In 2004, a powerful undersea earthquake occurred off the coast of Sumatra with a magnitude of 9.1. The earthquake ruptured a 900-mile stretch fault line where the Indian and Australian plates meet as the occurrence caused the ocean floor to rise as much as 40 meters. The rise of the ocean floor suddenly triggered a massive tsunami that generated several 100-foot waves that crashed the shoreline of Banda Aceh within 20 minutes of the initial quake. The tsunami killed more than 100,000 people in the Banda Aceh area and 230,000 people in total including inhabitants of nearby Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, and reaching as far as the coast of South Africa.[3]

Natural Disaster Readiness
Since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami occurrence, regional governments, the United Nations, and groups established the office of Disaster Risk Reduction and Preparedness (UNISDR) to mitigate future disaster occurrences. Three weeks after the 9.0 quake struck, 168 representatives of various nations agreed to cooperate in disaster readiness with the Hyogo Framework for Action. The plan laid a foundation for ocean floor earthquake sensors to be installed to trigger early warning detection so that trained local communities can evacuate upon disaster. With much attention in recent years gained from the destruction caused by tsunamis and subsequently implemented readiness investment, is volcano eruption readiness up to equal par? Attention to volcano eruption readiness has trailed behind tsunami preparedness plans noticeably in the region until 2018. The Anak Krakatau volcano eruption in the Sunda Strait caused undersea landslides that triggered a tsunami that struck the coastlines of Sumatra and Java killing over 400 people. Since the 2018 Anak Krakatau occurrence, the Indonesian government has been working on plans like the Volcanic Eruption Emergency Plan of Action (EPoA) to add adequate volcano censoring warning systems to better manage eruption occurrences.[4]
Deforestation
Due to the unfortunate ongoing occurrence of climate change in the age of Anthropocene, the region has become a major global deforestation hotspot. The region’s deforestation rate is on par and comparable to the deforestation rate of similar tropical regions like that of Latin America and Central Africa.[5] On a grander scale since 1990 until 2019, over 420 million hectares of global forest have been lost due to human activity. Between 1990 and 2010, the region has loss 1.6 million hectares of forest cover, reducing its forest size from 268 million hectares to 236 million hectares in the given timeframe.[6] At the current rate of deforestation, it is feared that Southeast Asia will lose over 40% of its biodiversity as the region’s forests dwindle by 1.2% annually.

Deforestation in the region is not a random occurrence, there are several economically influenced factors for ongoing deforestation. Palm oil production and its quadrupling land use cover since 1980 in keeping pace with global demand continues to aid the deforestation phenomena, as 72 million tons was produced in 2018. Palm oil has high utility in food ingredients, cleaning, and detergent products. Over 84% of global palm oil production occurs in Indonesia and Malaysia, accounting for 57% and 27% of both nation’s deforestation. Logging and cropping play another key role in regional ongoing deforestation as illegal logging of timber and its exportation continues to plague Indonesia’s landscape. The widespread over-practice of slash-and-burn, an ancient Indigenous Americas forest burning technique for cultivation primarily in Borneo, is degrading forests opposed to clearing with settling ash nutrients. A dependent variable in the dynamic of deforestation is the subsequent loss of biodiversity. The loss of regional species is apparent with fewer than 400 Sumatran tigers remaining in the world. Orangutans of the region have resorted to eating tree bark with fruit trees continuing to decrease. At the 2021 UN Climate Change Conference (COP26), over 100 countries that include Indonesia took a pledge to stop and reverse deforestation by the year 2030. Best case scenario, by the COP26 agreement and various governmental efforts suggest that 19.6 million hectares of forests can be recovered by 2050. Worst case scenario, continued deforestation actions and especially that of illegal logging continues, 5.2 million more hectares of forests may be lost by 2050.[6]
References:
[1]. Gupta, A. 2005. The Physical Geography of Southeast Asia Oxford. Oxford Academic.
[2]. Stibig, et al. Change in tropical forest cover of Southeast Asia from 1990 to 2010. Biogeosciences.
[3]. Reid, K. 2020. 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. World Vision.
[4]. Sodhi, et al. 2009. The state and Conservation of Southeast Asian Biodiversity. SpringerLink.
[5]. Lai, O. 2022. Deforestation in Southeast Asia. Earth.org.
[6]. Stibig, et al. Change in tropical forest cover of Southeast Asia from 1990 to 2010. Biogeosciences 11, 247–258 (2014).
Attributions:
“East and Southeast Asia's Physical Barriers” is adapted from East and Southeast Asia by Caitlin Finlayson, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.
"East Asia's Vast Landscape" is adapted from East Asia's Physical Geography of the Region by R. Adam Dastrup, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.
"Major Biomes of East Asia" is adapted from East Asia's Physical Geography of the Region by R. Adam Dastrup, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.
"River Basins of China" is adapted from East Asia's Physical Geography of the Region by R. Adam Dastrup, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.
“Tsunamis” is adapted from East and Southeast Asia by Caitlin Finlayson, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.
“River Streams” is adapted from Southeast Asia by the University of Minnesota, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.