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application
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process of translating evidence-based research and ideas into practical solutions to influence and improve human life
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associative learning
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learning process in which the repeated presentation of two stimuli results in the linking of the two stimuli, making the meanings synonymous
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attachment
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enduring, emotionally significant bond that forms between two individuals, often in a caregiving context
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attrition
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gradual loss or dropout of participants from your original pool
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behavioral genetics
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field of inquiry most directly concerned with exploring the intersection between nature and nurture, with an aim toward determining the degree to which behavior and development are driven by genetic influences
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behaviorist perspective
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perspective, also known as learning theory, that focuses on the role the environment plays in influencing behavior and behavioral change.
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case study
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investigation where a great amount of detail is gathered about one or more individuals of interest with the aim of gaining a thorough understanding of each person
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child study movement
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social and historical consensus that combined several interests to focus the scientific community’s interest on child development
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chronosystem
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idea that all other contexts within the ecological systems model are moving and changing through historical time
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classical conditioning
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learning process whereby a previously neutral or meaningless stimulus, via accidental or intentional pairing with a natural stimulus takes on the same meaning for the learner as the natural stimulus
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cohort effect
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idea that people live, interact and develop within a similar time period
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conditioned stimulus
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previously neutral or meaningless stimulus (an environmental trigger)
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continuous development
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gradual day-by-day or week-over-week progression of change
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correlation
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statistical technique used to determine degree of relation or association among two or more variables
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critical period
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developmental age range in which certain experiences are required for the development of a psychological or physical ability
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cross-sectional design
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type of developmental research where groups of participants composed of different ages are studied at a single point in time
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cross-sequential design
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type of developmental research that combines the benefits of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
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culture
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set of adaptations to the physical and social world that have shared meaning for a group and are transmitted across generations
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dependent variable
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resulting outcome behavior that is measured in an experiment; depends on another variable
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discontinuous development
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changes in kind, form or degree that do not directly follow from what came before
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ecological systems model
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proposes that a person’s development is shaped by different layers of their environment, from their immediate family and friends to their broader culture and society
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epigenetics
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process by which environmental influences can modify an individual’s genetic expression
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ethnicity
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one’s cultural and/or national heritage
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ethnoracial
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term combining the elements of race and ethnicity
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ethology
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study of animal behavior
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evolutionary psychology
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looks to the theory of natural selection to explain the emergence, development and persistence of various psychological characteristics in humans
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exosystem
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social and physical settings (contexts) in the ecological systems model that indirectly impact the developing individual and are even further removed from the immediate experience or even knowledge of the individual
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experimental method
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research design used to determine cause-and-effect relationships including specific design requirements
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external validity
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degree to which an experiment’s results and reality match
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gender
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ideas society has about the roles, attitudes and behaviors associated with one’s sex assignment
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gender identity
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an individual’s psychological sense of their gender, including ideas about masculinity, femininity, non-binary and other dimensions
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gene-environment correlation
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the complex interplay between our genes and the environments we experience in contributing to development
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generalizability
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the extent to which findings from a specific study or context can be applied to other populations or settings
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heritability estimate
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extent to which a genetic component explains difference
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human development
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scientific perspective that incorporates a multidisciplinary approach to understanding the development process
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hypothesis
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testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct; often worded as an if-then statement
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independent variable
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variable that is altered in an experiment and is expected or implied to be the cause of or influence some outcome behavior
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informed consent
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process whereby study participants are fully informed of the purpose of the study, what will be required of their participation, potential risks, including any harms, and what the benefits to science and themselves are anticipated to be
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kinship study
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method of studying naturally-occurring variation in genetic similarities of individuals and comparing that information with what we know about the degree of similarity or dissimilarity in the environments of these same individuals
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lifespan development
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scientific study of growth, change and stability in humans from conception until death
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longitudinal design
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type of developmental research where a group of participants are followed over a period of time, and reassessed at various points
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macrosystem
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set of contexts in the ecological systems model that contain all the beliefs and ideologies of one’s culture
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maturation
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growth and change in an individual based on underlying biological processes
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mesosystem
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interactions in the ecological systems model between the microsystem contexts that do not directly involve the developing individual
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microsystem
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distinct contexts (environmental settings) in the ecological systems model wherein individual development occurs via direct interaction
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naturalistic observation
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observation of research participants in real-life settings
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nature and nurture
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psychologists’ way of recognizing that most development has both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) sources of influence
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normative
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identification of typical or expected developments across the lifespan
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observational learning
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set of principles that outline the way in which learning can occur through the social act of observing others who are themselves undergoing learning
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operant conditioning
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learning process whereby feedback from the environment shapes an individual’s behavior
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private speech
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self-talk, in particular to guide progress on a difficult task
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psychology
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scientific study of the mind and all the behavior it produces
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psychosocial crisis
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age-based developmental challenge posed by society
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psychosocial theory of development
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theory that views human development occurring in stepwise fashion as a result of resolving age-graded challenges posed by the social environment
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punishment
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process of applying a consequence that has as its effect the decreased frequency of that behavior
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quasi-experimental design
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research method that seeks to determine the relationship between independent and dependent variables by studying conditions as they arise through the natural course of life
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race
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socially constructed concept that is a highly variable mix of physical characteristics, heritage, culture of origin, and self and other identification
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random assignment
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process whereby each participant has an equal chance of being placed in each condition
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reaction range
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idea that for many of our characteristics, our genes likely set parameters such as minimal and maximum levels of particular traits, behaviors or abilities, as well as how sensitive the development of these are to environmental forces
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regression
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process of moving backward to an early stage or lower capability
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reinforcement
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process of applying a consequence that has as its effect the increased frequency of that behavior
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reliability
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consistency and reproducibility of a given result
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religion
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formal system of beliefs, values, and practices organized around the worship of a higher being or power
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religiosity
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religious behaviors, such as praying, giving money to a place of worship or religious organization, and being active within a religious community
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resilience
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an individual’s capacity for and “process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or even significant sources of stress” (APA, 2014)
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scaffolding
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helping learners achieve beyond their current level, with a gradual withdrawing of such support
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sensitive period
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age range when the development of a characteristic is particularly open to inputs and influences from the environment
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sex
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one’s assignment as male, female, or intersex based on one’s biological anatomy and physiology
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sexual orientation
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includes sexual identity, sexual behavior, and sexual attraction, or to whom someone is sexually attracted
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shaping
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learning process where successive approximations of a desired target behavior are reinforced thereby producing progressively more complex behavior
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society
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recognized group of people who live within a formal system of rules and institutions
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sociocultural theory of cognitive development
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view of cognitive development that emphasizes the embeddedness of the development of thinking abilities within the social and cultural context of the individual
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socioeconomic status (SES)
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measure of one’s position in society and level of access to resources
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spirituality
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individual’s personal search for the sacred
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stability
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state in which characteristics and abilities remain the same or function similarly across broad portions of the lifespan
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stage theory
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explanation for brief periods of rapid development following longer stretches of stability
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stage theory of cognitive development
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theory that children’s thinking skills change in distinct steps or stages as they grow, with each stage building on the previous one
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structured observation
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type of observation where people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks
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theory
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well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
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third variable problem
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idea that another variable, one you did not measure, is what is actually independently influencing the two variables you did study
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twin study
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type of kinship study in which the correspondence between the genetic relatedness of twins specifically (both identical and fraternal) and resulting psychological characteristics are examined
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unconditioned stimulus
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environmental trigger that has inherent meaning that does not have to be learned
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validity
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accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure
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zone of proximal development (ZPD)
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notion that there are concepts and ideas just beyond our current abilities that we are ready to learn and master, if only we had a little help, often in the form of others