5.5: Play in Early Childhood

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify types of play
• Describe the developmental progression of play
• Explain the importance of play as a context for development in early childhood

Robbie’s dad finds rainy days to be the hardest. His four-year-old son has trouble being cooped up indoors and is never happier than when he’s zooming down the slide, concentrating on his monkey bar skills, or pretending to be a train engineer on the play structure at the playground. Play is an essential part of Robbie’s development. It’s a key component in his learning and socialization, and it fosters overall well-being. Through play, Robbie will explore his environment, engage with peers, and develop cognitive, physical, and emotional skills. Play will allow Robbie and his playmates to use their imagination, creativity, and problem-solving abilities in a natural, entertaining manner.

Play does not require expensive toys or modern playground equipment. In many lower-income parts of the world, even very young children occupy themselves without adult supervision for considerable parts of the day. They find things to play with alongside laboring parents or older siblings. In wealthier countries, children play quite differently. But even in the United States, there is wide disparity in opportunities for play. Suburban and rural areas may have more open spaces than urban ones; however, urban areas may have easier access to walkable community playgrounds. Closer proximity to safe, accessible outdoor play areas promotes healthy psychological development (Perez-del-Pulgar et al., 2021). Caregivers with less access to high-quality playgrounds may need to find other ways to encourage physical play for children to reduce risks of poor physical health outcomes (McCarthy et al., 2017). In every play environment, Vygotsky’s concept of social constructivism is evident as children learn about the world around them and socialize accordingly.

Ideally, we want to create environments where children like Robbie can explore, make decisions, and initiate activities in play. Encouraging curiosity and determination will strengthen their sense of self and set the stage for later accomplishments and identity development. In this section, you’ll learn about types of play from a developmental perspective, and then play’s connection to overall physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development—as well as its benefits and importance

Types of Play

Mildred Parten was a renowned U.S. sociologist and researcher best known for her seminal work on social play. Her research helped shape our understanding of the different types of play in which children engage and the social functions these activities serve. Based on her observations of children at nursery schools and playgrounds, Parten identified six different types of play (Table 5.3): unoccupied play, solitary play, onlooker play, parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play. Her classification system provides a framework for the way play evolves over time and reflects changes in children’s social and cognitive development (Parten, 1932).

Table 5.3 Parten’s Six Stages of Non-Social and Social Play (source: Parten, 1932)

Forms of Play	Age Which They Typically First Appear	Characteristics	Cognitive Capabilities and Advancements
Unoccupied play	Birth to 3 months	Children are not really playing in the way that we often think of play. They are observing. A child may be performing random movements.	Early cognitive abilities are limited. The focus is on exploring the environment and learning through sensory experiences.
Solitary (independent) play	3 months	Children play alone and maintain focus on their activity. They do not acknowledge what others are doing. This kind of play is particularly valuable for the ability to explore new skills and news ways of thinking. It is also a way to prepare for social play.	Cognition has developed such that children engage in purposeful activities and learn through trial and error.
Onlooker play	2.5 years	Children observe others at play but do not become physically involved. They may engage in social conversation about the play without joining in the activity.	Children can observe and learn from the actions of others.
Parallel play	3.5 years	Children play separately from others but are physically close and engage in similar actions. For instance, two children may be building separate block structures in the same general space. This type of play is a transitional stage to more socially advanced play.	Children engage in parallel activities and learn through imitation.
Associative play	4 years	There is now a focus on the other person as well as the play. Children may engage in the same activity and assist each other, but the activity is not a joint project. In block play, a child may hand over or suggest a particular block to use.	Cognitive abilities have developed such that children can engage in social interactions and learn through collaboration.
Cooperative play	4.5 years	Children are fully engaged with both the activity and the person. Activities are organized, and children adhere to roles or rules. They begin to identify with a group, perhaps incorporating the group identity. Examples include play-acting in various settings like kitchens and schoolrooms, and games that need rules, like hopscotch.	Children engage in complex problem-solving and learn through cooperation.

Play as Context for Development

In preschool, play is an avenue for physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development. Recall that children learn through observation by watching and imitating their peers and adults. This process exposes them to new ideas and ways of doing things they may not have known before. Play offers a wealth of opportunities to learn through imitation and interaction with both peers and adults. Imitation is particularly effective when children are engaged in challenging activities like building a block tower or entering a new pretend-play environment.

Play is not simply another way to move. Even play that lacks much movement, like playing board games, can foster cognitive development, hone social skills and emotional regulation, improve language and problem-solving skills, and even facilitate cultural understanding (Ginsberg et al., 2007).

Importance of Play

Play and everyday creative activities are essential to learning and a crucial component of children’s development (Dios Benítez-Sillero et al., 2022). They help children develop their language skills when they have conversations with others and use their imagination to create stories. Play helps children develop their fine and gross motor skills when they manipulate toys and objects and engage in physical activities such as running, throwing, and climbing (Figure 5.23).

Figure 5.23 This young child is engaging in independent play while practicing fine motor skills. (credit: “Young boy pressing the controls on the steering wheel of a toy vehicle” by Ivan Radic/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

Play is also important for young children’s mental health and well-being. It is a natural stress reliever and helps to manage emotions and anxiety. It provides a sense of joy and fulfillment, which contributes to self-esteem and confidence. The global scientific community has long been an advocate for children’s unstructured free play. As long ago as 1989, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) named play one of fifty-four fundamental human rights, stating that every child has the right “to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child, and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts” (UN, 1989). Nearly two hundred countries have signed this international agreement.

Link to Learning

Learn about a child’s right to play according to Article 13 of the Convention of the Rights of the Child.

However, schools have become increasingly focused on academic achievement and structured learning. Overall, play has become less valued than in the past (Waters et al., 2022). Even preschools have reduced playtime in favor of more academic instruction, which can result in a variety of negative consequences for children’s development and well-being (Kahan & Poulos, 2023; Tong Lee et al., 2020). And despite recommendations from developmental scientists and other professionals, restricting play activity in schools remains a standard form of punishment in the United States (Global Recess Alliance et al., 2022; Kahan & Poulos, 2023).

The COVID-19 pandemic further complicated this reduction in play. First, because most educational and childcare institutions closed for weeks or months, children had reduced opportunities for unstructured free play with peers, incurring a developmental disadvantage. Second, after children returned to school, educators were concerned about making up for lost time and raised academic demands while limiting play. Additionally, children’s screen time increased during the pandemic and remained elevated even after restrictions on gathering indoors were lifted (Hedderson et al., 2023; Li et al., 2023; Nery et al., 2023; Scott et al., 2022).

Peer Learning and Social Constructivism

Peer learning, another developmental product of preschool play, is particularly effective when children are engaged in activities that require collaboration and cooperation, such as building imaginary cities or playing a game (Figure 5.24). Through these interactions, children develop their cognitive and social skills, and those who struggle to learn on their own can receive support and guidance from peers rather than adults. As a result, children are more likely to display prosocial behaviors like sharing and cooperating, and less likely to display negative behaviors such as aggression (Scott & Cogburn, 2022; Toppe et al., 2019).

Figure 5.24 Peer learning offers children support and guidance from classmates rather than adults. (credit: “Corps engineers connect with students at Morgan State STEM expo” by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers/Flickr, Public Domain)

These outcomes should sound familiar. Recall Vygotsky’s theory of social constructivism, which says learning occurs through social interactions. Thus, cognitive development is shaped by a child’s cultural and social experiences. Learning is optimized when children are engaged in activities appropriate for their level of development and have opportunities to interact with more knowledgeable peers or adults. Therefore, collaboration through play provides a foundation for prosocial skills and cognitive pursuits (DeLay et al., 2016; Eggum-Wilkens et al., 2014; Scott & Cogburn, 2022).

Variations in Play

Preschool children engage in similar play throughout the world, but there is quite a bit of cultural and other kinds of variability. Some children may also face socioeconomic or physical challenges. Let’s explore these differences.

Cross-cultural Differences in Play

Early childhood play activities vary widely across cultures, influenced by factors such as social norms, beliefs, values, and geographical location (Sims & Hutchins, 2011). For example, some cultures may place a greater emphasis on physical play such as running, jumping, and climbing, while others may focus more on imaginative play such as storytelling, puppetry, and role-playing (Göncü, 1993; Leisterer-Peoples, 2021; Stengelin et al., 2020; Stengelin et al., 2023).

One culture that emphasizes physical play is that of the Maasai people in East Africa. From a young age, children are encouraged to engage in jumping contests and spear-throwing games (Figure 5.25), in addition to football (soccer), volleyball, and variations of games like tag. These activities develop physical strength and endurance and prepare children for the physical demands of a semi-nomadic lifestyle and management of natural resources and livestock (Garvey, 1990; Tian et al., 2021). In contrast, the Inuit culture in Canada and Greenland stresses imaginative play, such as storytelling and role-playing. Children are encouraged to develop their creativity, often using natural materials such as snow, ice, and animal skins to create their own toys and games. Storytelling is a central part of Inuit culture, and children are often taught traditional stories and legends through play and storytelling activities (Lutkenhaus & Thomsen, 2013).

Figure 5.25 Maasai children engage in culturally specific as well as universal kinds of play, like soccer. (credit: “Soccer with the Maasai “ by “ssilberman”/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

The availability and use of outdoor play spaces varies as well. For example, in Scandinavian countries, outdoor play is a central part of early childhood education, and children are often encouraged to engage in unstructured play in natural settings (Dankiw et al., 2020; Einarsdóttir, 2011). Even in the winter in other northern climates, unstructured nature play is considered essential (Figure 5.26). Despite challenges due to a frigid climate much of the year, schools generally do not let weather impede scheduled outdoor activities. It not only benefits physical health, but research shows that children who participate in more nature activities show similar kindergarten-readiness as those who attend more academically focused preschools. Being outside also improves executive control, an important precursor to school success (Cordiano et al., 2019; Ernst et al., 2021; Zamzow & Ernst, 2020).

Figure 5.26 Despite challenging weather conditions, outdoor play is an essential component of Nordic early childhood education. (credit: modification of work “Snow1” by Kristjan Molstad/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

In the United States, preschoolers engage in a variety of play activities both indoors and outdoors, including games of tag, hide-and-seek, and “Simon Says.” Imaginative play with dolls, stuffed animals, and pretend kitchens is also encouraged. Some young children participate in organized sports, dance classes, and other physical activities.

In some environments group play is emphasized to help children learn social skills. Elsewhere individual play is encouraged to foster creativity and self-reliance. The types of toys and materials available to children can vary widely as well. Some parents may be perfectly comfortable strolling a garden while their children pick up bugs and explore natural materials like sticks, stones, and leaves (Figure 5.27). Others may limit children to “cleaner” indoor activities. Some parents and educators might use more plastic toys, whereas electronic devices may be more common for others. A singular activity does not always have a profound impact on a child’s developmental trajectory, but both adult behaviors and play activities can lead to varying behaviors and thought among groups of children (Wiseman et al., 2019).

Figure 5.27 Play behavior can include many different activities, ranging from exploring the natural world to using plastic toys indoors. Opportunities for play are affected by several factors, including SES, family values, the focus of individual schools, and access. (credit: “Children and Nature” by Children Nature Network/nappy, CC0 1.0)

Play and Gender

There is no doubt that traditional gender roles influence the types of play activities encouraged for boys and girls in many cultures. For example, boys may be encouraged to engage in heightened physical play and competition, while girls are guided toward quieter activities like drawing and storytelling (Telford et al., 2016). However, especially at the preschool level, children should never be limited or discouraged in play because of the way they look or their biological sex. All children should be treated equally when presented with opportunities to play.

Play and Socioeconomic Status

The influences of SES, specifically income and neighborhood factors, extends into play as well. On average, children from lower-income families live in smaller houses or apartments and closer to urban centers. These circumstances disproportionally influence their play experiences. Compared to peers in suburban or rural areas, children in urban areas have more limited outdoor play spaces, which also leads to lower levels of physical activity (Bao et al., 2021). In these and other settings, smaller indoor play areas and limited outdoor spaces can have a negative impact on overall health and well-being (Bento & Dias, 2017).

SES also affects play behaviors in ways that reflect families’ social and economic circumstances. Children from higher SES backgrounds usually have access to a wider range of toys, materials, and structured activities. While there are clearly benefits to structured activities like recreational sports and educational toys, unstructured, imaginative play has clear benefits as well (Dankiw et al., 2020; Li et al., 2022; Tong Lee et al., 2020). Recognizing and valuing diverse play styles allows us to support children’s development from multiple perspectives. It also fosters cross-cultural understanding and promotes a sense of belonging among all children.

Play and Differing Abilities

While mobility barriers often limit the play opportunities of preschool children with physical disabilities, active play improves their cognition, motor skills, balance, coordination, and overall physical fitness as it does for any child (Shields & Synnot, 2016). Active play also helps prevent obesity, a more common problem among children with physical disabilities (Walker et al., 2019).

Play provides opportunities for younger children with disabilities to interact with their typically developing peers and develop a sense of belonging. Yet it appears there are social barriers as well. Both parents and teachers report that preschool children with physical disabilities face challenges in engaging with their peers (Ebbers et al., 2021). To overcome this constraint, preschools can focus on early introduction of routine outdoor play, emphasizing both inclusive play spaces and inclusive activities that can take place there (Figure 5.28. Training preschool and kindergarten teachers in these practices will help integrate children with disabilities into everyday play activities, and changing the mindset of typically developing children and their parents is important for achieving more equity in social opportunities during play (Ebbers et al., 2021; James et al., 2022).

Figure 5.28 Public play spaces can be designed with all children in mind. (credit: modification of work “Accessible Playground sign, Cherryhurst Park” by “WhisperToMe”/Wikimedia Commons, CC0 1.0)

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