8.1: Identity, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem in Middle Childhood
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the features of Erikson ’s industry versus inferiority challenge
- Discuss self-efficacy and self-esteem as they relate to personality development
- Describe gender identity and role development in middle childhood
- Describe racial and ethnic identity development in middle childhood
Patrick is nine years old and in fourth grade. He’s having a hard time this year because the other kids are taller and better at sports than he is. Other kids tease and call him names because he is small, and when the class photo is taken, Patrick is embarrassed to be selected for the front row with the shortest kids in the class. Physical education (PE) class is becoming a time of panic for Patrick. Team sports are difficult, especially basketball. The only thing worse than PE would be changing in the locker room with the other boys, as Patrick’s older brother in middle school does. Patrick feels tiny and weak and wishes he could avoid PE days all together. Outside school, Patrick has been spending his time with his cousins Jesus and Sarah. They enjoy doing the same things Patrick enjoys, namely, playing board games and video games. They’re all excited to participate in Patrick’s first ever Dungeons & Dragons campaign. He would like to just be himself at school, as he is around his cousins. But he worries that this would bring more comments about his size.
Middle childhood is a time of dramatic changes in the understanding of the self . As children work toward becoming more independent, they gain important skills and develop increasingly important relationships with peers. These activities provide children with a better understanding of their personal strengths and weaknesses as well as information about who they are as individuals. At this stage, children navigate social environments and their growing sense of self, including self-esteem, social comparisons, and gender development.
Psychosocial Theory of Development: Industry versus Inferiority
Recall that Erik Erikson believed personality develops through eight stages from infancy through adulthood (Erikson, 1959, 1968, 1985). During each stage, an individual faces some type of psychosocial dilemma that can help or hinder personality development, depending on how the dilemma is managed. During middle childhood, children are moving out of the initiative versus guilt stage, during which they began to assert themselves in social interactions and in play. Successful navigation of this stage provides a strong foundation for the fourth stage of Erikson’s stage of psychosocial development, industry versus inferiority , when children construct their sense of success and accomplishment in work tasks.
According to Erikson, this stage takes place between the ages of approximately six and eleven years, when children are rapidly developing new abilities. Industry refers to the ability to work hard and achieve goals. Children are becoming increasingly independent and work hard to develop a sense of competence in areas such as athletics, music, social relationships, and academics. They compare their skills and achievements to those of their peers, who they now spend more time both in and out of school than before. They may learn they are better at some things than other children, and that some skills and talents are more valued than others. If they feel they can master their skills and are encouraged in their efforts, they develop a sense of industry. If they don’t have much success in their efforts, they may develop a sense of inferiority, feeling they are not good enough at something.
Children are also now learning important emotional and social skills. Those who are proficient in their interactions with peers or feel they have valuable talents will develop pride in their abilities and develop self-confidence (Triwiratman et al., 2023). A child who feels they are not as competent as other children may develop feelings of inadequacy. At home, children can contribute to their household while completing chores and other family responsibilities. This opportunity helps develop important life skills, and positive feedback from parents and other family members can reinforce their sense of competence in their abilities. Erikson’s theory is one of the few to consider various cultural and contextual factors in identity development (Syed & Fish, 2018). Some research indicates middle childhood’s focus on industry can be fostered in a variety of settings including through home environments and household work, school and peer interactions, in in more agricultural cultures through community farming work (Döring et al., 2015).
As children enter formalized education in elementary school, they face new expectations for performance, achievement, and evaluation. Meeting or exceeding these expectations becomes a central focus for many, and their days revolve around school and school events. A school’s culture can heavily shape a child’s identity. A child who learns to read and write, master math concepts, and independently complete tasks at school will feel competent and industrious. Supportive learning environments, appropriate levels of challenge, and reasonable expectations can help facilitate a sense of industriousness. For example, when children feel supported by their parents, they are more likely to have high self-esteem and improved academic performance (Wang et al., 2021). Children who build a sense of industry will take pride in their accomplishments and develop an identity as a contributing member of their community, whether it be schoolwork or other community work (Batra, 2013).
In comparison, children who are labeled problem students, who display disruptive behavior, or who struggle with the expectations of formal education may develop a sense of inferiority. Having such feelings is related to social anxiety and fear of negative evaluations (Li et al., 2023). Early identity struggles and low self-esteem can also develop in children who experience trauma at school or at home (Downey & Crummy, 2022), and in children who have undiagnosed learning disabilities, attention deficits, or emotional disturbances (Zuppardo et al., 2023). Children with a sense of inferiority may dislike school, disengage from learning activities, and consider themselves poor learners. This result, in turn, can have long-term consequences on their learning and educational achievement, self-concept, and even peer relationships (McArthur et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2020).
However, children who struggle with one of Erikson’s stages initially can later conquer the stage. In other words, children with a sense of inferiority may achieve industry later in their development, particularly when provided with good social and community supports (Zock, 2018). This can be accomplished through schools and extracurriculars that promote a sense of competence and encourage the unique talents of children who are at risk or are struggling with their psychosocial development (Cross & Cross, 2017). Whether during middle childhood or later, when adults encourage children’s efforts on challenging tasks, children are likely to have increased feelings of industry.
The Developing Self
During middle childhood, children’s self-concept , or their beliefs about their abilities, characteristics, and personality, changes dramatically. Their sense of self is influenced by peers and family members as well as by societal messages that they receive, such as through the media (Collins & Madsen, 2019). Children in middle childhood become hyperaware of themselves and the way others perceive them. Starting in the early elementary grades, they notice the way classmates and other children react to them, and they begin to reflect on and monitor their self-projection , or the way they are portraying themselves around different audiences such as new classmates, close friends, teachers, parents, and other family members (Howe et al., 2022). A child may be more polite and restrained around potential new friends—for instance, funnier and more outgoing around already-close friends, yet serious and intellectual around teachers, and more emotional and dependent around parents. Achieving this requires a sophisticated level of social competence , a skill we use to understand and respond to the differing expectations of various contexts and audiences.
By middle childhood, the sense of self is more realistic than it was during early childhood. In researcher Susan Harter’s Self-Perception Profile, children in middle childhood pick options that apply to themselves and that measure global self-worth . The scale consists of five subscales: scholastic achievement, athletic ability, social competence, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct (Harter, 2012). While a four-year-old child will not be able to discriminate between who they want to be (their ideal self) and who they actually are (Harter, 2015), by middle childhood, a child can more accurately identify their strengths and weaknesses.
In addition, a more complex self-concept has emerged. While in early childhood, self-descriptions tend to be focused on physical characteristics and might include the child’s hair color, gender, and age, by middle childhood, self-concept is increasingly abstract, multifaceted, and evaluative. Specifically, children in middle childhood start to move from thinking in concrete terms (“I have brown hair”) to more abstract qualities (“I am a good friend”; “I’m persistent”). They begin to understand and describe themselves using internal characteristics and psychological traits. They now start to consider their hobbies and interests—whether a genre of music, sports, or art activities—as part of their self-concept (Figure 8.2). They also include personality characteristics, such as funny, kind, smart, quiet, or brave. Finally they might consider their own abilities such as proclaiming themselves to be good at gymnastics, bad at writing, and/or okay at math. This rich development in self-concept continues into adolescence.
At the same time, children are appraising and judging the actions of others. In elementary school, they begin to perform intense social comparisons with classmates and become highly proficient at identifying the skills, personalities, and attributes of their peers. Children use these social comparisons to evaluate whether they are superior, inferior, or average compared to their classmates on a variety of dimensions, but particularly academic ability, athletic ability, and social status. Children with higher self-esteem are likely to evaluate themselves more positively in these areas (Orth & Robins, 2022). Recall from 6.1 Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood that self-esteem is an individual’s subjective evaluation of their self, and although it is based on a child’s self-concept, it differs from self-concept in that it includes positive or negative feelings about the self-evaluation. If self-concept differs enough from ideal self—the self we consider ideal and hope to be—then self-esteem will be lower. The better the two are matched, the higher our self-esteem (Figure 8.3).
Self-esteem generally tends to increase throughout middle childhood but may decrease slightly as children approach adolescence before increasing again during adulthood (Ogihara & Kusumi, 2020; Robins et al., 2002). This is likely because children are becoming better able to evaluate themselves through social comparisons. For example, they may realize that they are not actually the fastest runner in the world. Self-esteem is also influenced by the early experiences a child has with caregivers and other adults. Those whose caregivers are high in warmth and supportive are more likely to have higher self-esteem (Brummelman & Sedikides., 2020; Orth & Robins, 2019).
Psychologists distinguish, however, between self-esteem and narcissism. According to Brummelman and Sedikides (2020), narcissism is an exaggerated sense of importance or superiority including an unrealistic idea of self and may emerge when caregivers overpraise children or focus on social comparisons to other children. They assert that self-esteem decreases when parents overpraise their children. Instead, caregivers should focus on providing realistic feedback, help children focus on personal growth rather than on performing better than others, and provide unconditional warmth and acceptance that is not dependent on achievements (Brummelman & Sedikides, 2020).
Link to Learning
Positive self-esteem is associated with academic performance and better mental health. Watch Self-Esteem For Kids—10 Ways To Build Self-Esteem & Self-Confidence to learn about self-esteem and some tips on how to help children build their self-esteem.
Another characteristic related to self-concept is self-efficacy , an individual’s beliefs about their ability to effectively complete a task that will allow them to achieve a goal (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy is not about a child’s abilities but rather their beliefs about what they can achieve with those abilities. For example, a child may have strong academic self-efficacy, meaning they believe they can be successful in a school environment. Other children may have self-efficacy related to social relationships or their problem-solving or athletic abilities. In general, higher self-efficacy is related to better outcomes. For example, children who have high self-efficacy about their ability to successfully complete mathematics have better mathematical achievement (Kaskens et al., 2020).
Although self-efficacy may seem similar to self-esteem, the distinction between them is important. Self-esteem describes how much value a child places on themselves as a worthy individual, while self-efficacy is their belief in their ability to work effectively and achieve in various areas (academics, sports, the arts, relationships, etc.) of their lives. Notably, self-efficacy influences self-esteem (Han & Park, 2020). For example, a child who believes they can be successful in school (high academic self-efficacy) is more likely to work hard to be successful. That achievement can then increase self-esteem, but only if performing well academically is important to the child. In other words, children’s self-esteem is most positively impacted by achieving success in the areas that are important to them.
The dramatic changes happening in the development of self-concept during middle childhood provide a unique opportunity for caregivers to help children develop positive self-esteem and self-efficacy by providing warmth, support, realistic and constructive feedback, and an emphasis on growth rather than achievements.
Life Hacks: Measuring Your Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy
Self-esteem and self-efficacy are subjective concepts, meaning they are about the way you view yourself, not so much about the way others view you. This makes both characteristics easy to measure through self-reports. For example, you can find a General Self-Efficacy Scale calculator to measure your self-efficacy and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale to measure your self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). Once you have taken both scales and calculated your scores, consider how they are similar and different.
Based on what you’ve learned from these tools, what are some strategies you can use to increase your self-esteem and self-efficacy? Start by identifying the things you’re good at. What are some of the achievements of which you are most proud? What are your strengths and abilities? Do you think there are ways that improving self-efficacy may be more useful than raising self-esteem?
When you catch yourself thinking negative thoughts about yourself, make an effort to think about some of the strengths and achievements you’ve just identified. Set goals for yourself, and celebrate the small successes. You don’t need to wait for the big goals to celebrate. For example, instead of focusing solely on your overall class grade, take the time to enjoy the high score you received on a test after studying hard for it. If you do make a mistake, forgive yourself—we all make mistakes. Strive to look toward your next goal.
Gender, Racial, and Ethnic Identity
Gender, race, and ethnicity are major social categories that influence the way children see themselves as well as the way others see them. The important developments that occur during this period are central influences on a child’s overall identity and other aspects of development.
Gender Identity in Middle Childhood
As you’ve learned, sex and gender are different concepts, and the sex assigned to a child at birth can differ from the gender identity that develops over the course of childhood. Although children can typically accurately identify their sex assigned at birth (e.g., male or female) by eighteen months to three years of age, middle childhood allows them to begin understanding nuances of gender, due in part to their expanding social world. Gender is socially constructed and is influenced by cultural beliefs. For example, in the United States and many other societies, gender inequality is present in cultural beliefs and stereotypes of males and females, with females being stereotyped as inferior. These cultural beliefs can influence child development in ways that are harmful or constraining (Rogers, 2020). For example, a child may struggle with self-esteem and feelings of worth if they believe these gender norms and that they don’t fit into the stereotype. However, when children develop beliefs that gender is not that important or that genders are equal, they may form a healthier gender identity and overall self-concept (Rogers, 2020; Rogers & Way, 2021).
During middle childhood, children have a well-developed understanding of gender norm expectations (Rogers & Meltzoff, 2017) learned from caregivers, peers, teachers, and the media. They can reinforce gender norms, such as when they make a statement like, “Boys are better at math than girls,” or challenge them, “Anyone can become a nurse or a doctor” (Rogers, 2020). Children develop their own gender identity as they consider which gender norms they will reinforce and those they will challenge. In other words, during middle childhood, children become less focused on the rules of gender expression and start to understand that gender stereotypes are just stereotypes.
Children tend to be most rigid about gender stereotypes in early childhood (around five to six years of age), but beginning in middle childhood (around ages seven to eight years), they become much more flexible in their gender beliefs and identity (Trautner et al., 2005). They often become less judgmental toward gender-nonconforming peers, aided by a growing neurological maturity that allows them to understand exceptions and individuality. Their own self-concept is becoming more complex too, so children can increasingly recognize how complex others can be.
Racial Identity in Middle Childhood
As self-concepts become increasingly complex during middle childhood, racial and ethnic identities develop (Corenblum, 2014). Racial identity is the sense of self gleaned from an individual’s racial background, and for children it typically includes physical appearance, language, and sense of pride (Rogers et al., 2012). Racial identity begins to develop during infancy and continues through adulthood (Williams et al., 2020).
In the United States 2020 census, more than 30 percent of children identify as multiracial, while many others identify as members of at least one racial minority group (Rico et al., 2023). At five to six years of age, children can accurately use societal labels about skin color to describe others (Black, White), and by the age of ten years, children of color in particular are able to describe racial stereotypes that affect their racial identity (Swanson et al., 2009). Similar to gender identity, when children form their own racial identity focused more on equality and personal identity than race stereotypes, they are more likely to thrive (Rogers & Way, 2021). For example, research on racial identity indicates that when formation of healthy racial identities focused on celebrating an individual’s uniqueness and/or valuing equality, the individual is better able to navigate negative stereotypes and have a healthier overall identity (Rogers et al., 2021). Peers, particularly having friends of the same race, and a child’s school environment are especially influential in the development of racial identity in school-aged children (Jugert et al., 2020).
Ethnic Identity in Middle Childhood
Ethnic identity is the part of a child’s sense of self based on their ethnic heritage. To develop this identity, children need to be able to identify themselves as a member of a particular social group, which most children can do in early childhood (Corenblum, 2014). At three to five years of age, they focus on physical features such as skin color when considering ethnicity (Rogers et al., 2012). However, by middle childhood, children are focusing on behavioral and cultural aspects, such as language and ancestry. In fact, eight-year-old children describe physical appearance, culture, and group pride as important elements of ethnic identity —the same elements that adolescents mention (Rogers et al., 2012).
Specific aspects of ethnic identity differ among ethnic groups. For example, Puerto Rican children describe the importance of cultural events and their pride in being Puerto Rican, while Chinese American children focus on language as an important aspect of their ethnic identity (Way et al., 2008). Ethnic identity is also complex for immigrant children. They learn about their first (ethnic) culture while simultaneously learning about and adapting to their new culture. In other words, they are developing an ethnic identity and a national identity . The importance they place on these identities may be apparent in the label that they use to describe their ethnicity—“Mexican” or “Mexican American,” for example (Brown, 2017).
Although we can think about gender, racial, and ethnic identities separately, children often have multiple social identities, which they may value differently. For example, Portuguese immigrant children rate their gender identity as more important than their ethnic identity, while Cambodian and Dominican immigrant children rate their ethnic identity as more important (Akiba et al., 2004; Turner & Brown, 2007). Ethnic identity strengthens during middle childhood. For example, Corenblum (2014) 1 reports that by age eleven years, First-Nation Canadian children describe their ethnic identity as more important than any other social identities (such as gender) except family. Children who have immigrated to a new country often experience some level of stress as they try to balance multiple cultural and/or national identities, but often through development they are able to form their own unique and multifaceted cultural identity (Juang & Syed, 2019).
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