8.4: Context- School and Extracurricular Activities in Middle Childhood
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify features of the school climate that foster development
- Describe types of teacher-student relationship s
- Discuss the goals of the positive youth development model
Yvonne wants to go to school and learn. They love the thrill of studying something new, memorizing information for a test, and pushing their mind in new directions. The adrenaline rush of writing a math answer on the board or raising a hand to provide an answer is fulfilling and fun.
But despite this, school is not a place where Yvonne feels comfortable. The other students in class are not enthusiastic about learning and seldom share Yvonne’s eagerness for reading long books or perfecting long-division skills. The teacher seems scattered, sometimes losing his place while teaching. Yvonne feels understimulated and underappreciated. The classroom is a place of chaotic disorganization and distracted classmates, and Yvonne feels like they are the only one who cares.
In this section, you’ll consider the demands of the class on students, and the way the school environment can influence child development outcomes through the teacher-student relationship.
You’ll also learn about the social aspects of school and other contexts of youth development.
Academic Demands
One of the biggest changes in middle childhood is navigating formal education , or elementary school. School is a social place, in which peer interactions are expected and demanded for most of the day, and in which children encounter new social and emotional demands. As children enter middle childhood, their formal schooling becomes more structured, and assessment becomes increasingly important. Elementary schools have become more focused on teaching skills that are assessed on standardized tests (Russell, 2011). These academic demands require attention and self-control from students (Degol & Bachman, 2023; Pener–Tessler et al., 2022). Children may also face learning obstacles and new relationships with peers and teachers.
Students are expected to remain at their desks for most of the day and follow along with group activities, complete tasks on time, and keep their bodies still. In fact, children spend about 64 percent of their school day sedentary (Egan et al., 2019). Sedentary behavior is linked to more inattention and increased hyperactivity (Suchert et al., 2017). It can be particularly demanding for children who feel the need to wiggle, dance, and walk to concentrate, and especially difficult for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Evans et al., 2020). Further, research has shown that being physically active has important academic benefits (Norris et al., 2020).
Finally, the classroom is a place of learning, particularly about literacy, math, and other academic subjects. By the end of middle childhood, children are beginning to take tests and quizzes and complete individual projects. A focus on academic performance can put emotional strain on children as they learn to measure up and perform at the expected levels. Academic stress is associated with lower academic performance (Luo et al., 2016). This stress and pressure can come from a range of sources including the child’s personal academic goals as well as from school staff or family members (Sotardi, 2016).
Parenting style is a particularly important influence on the child’s academic achievement. When parents show high levels of warmth , it can help a child build confidence in their academic abilities, while lower warmth from parents may increase a child’s experience of academic pressure (Luo et al., 2020). Parents’ and teachers’ expectations also matter. Having higher educational expectations for children can lead to positive academic performance, but very high expectations can exert pressure and generate academic burnout (Luo et al., 2020). In some cases, failure to meet parents’ academic expectations can lead to child maltreatment. For example, one study found that incidents of child abuse increase when report cards go home (Bright et al., 2019). Parents who place a lot of focus on measures of how their child is doing in school (grades and test scores) may also unintentionally teach children to focus on grades rather than on the process of learning (Pinquart & Ebeling, 2020).
Parental expectations about academic performance vary across cultures. For example, parents in the United States tend to focus on academic success and praising their child, while many parents in China are more involved and tend to focus more on academic failures and mistakes (Pomerantz et al., 2014). Although parental expectations for academic performance tend to be lower among children in families with lower socioeconomic status (SES) in Western societies, parents of children in East Asian societies more consistently have high expectations across families with lower and higher SES (Li & Xie, 2020). 6 Multiple factors including parent education, culture, and financial resources are likely to influence how parents express their academic expectation s to children. Generally, research indicates that a hybrid approach, emphasizing learning from mistakes while praising successes, may be beneficial to most children (Pomerantz et al., 2014).
Classroom Climate
How well children navigate and meet the demands of the classroom largely depends on classroom climate , the emotional culture of the learning environment. For instance, a positive classroom climate is characterized by encouragement from peers, well-organized learning activities, respect for the asking and answering of questions, kindness, warmth, and happiness (Wang et al., 2020). It also includes positive disciplinary practices and a focus on developing positive interpersonal relationships between teachers, students, and their peers (Wang & Degol, 2016). Children who experience positive classroom climates are more likely to participate, volunteer answers, and enjoy being in school (Wang et al., 2020).
In contrast, a negative classroom climate is characterized by chaotic or disorganized activities, teachers and peers who are critical and judgmental, bullying behavior, or an overly strict and disciplinary atmosphere. Children in this climate are more likely to disengage, withdraw, and form a negative opinion about school and learning (Wang et al., 2020).
Given the importance of classroom climate for academic success, many countries, including Canada, China, Germany, England, France, Israel, Singapore, and the United States, have initiatives designed to improve it (Wang et al., 2020). For example, some schools have focused on improving school quality through improving the relationships between teachers, parents, and students, while many other schools have moved toward a focus on promoting positive behaviors in classrooms (Horner et al., 2015; Wang & Degol, 2016).
Link to Learning
Education for elementary school children is often approached quite differently in other countries. Some elementary school rules in Japan are presented in this video.
Teacher-Group Relationships
Teachers have a major impact on classroom climate. A teacher who is aloof, distant, and disorganized may influence students to be off-task, overly active, and talkative (Wang et al., 2020). Teachers who are intrusive, overdemanding, and authoritarian, however, may foster a fearful learning environment in which students experience anxiety and stress over their contributions and performance. A teacher who provides a high level of warmth, encouragement, and support for autonomy can create a positive learning environment in which students feel comfortable participating and can rise to their full potential (Quin, 2017).
Teachers’ classroom organization and teaching strategies also influence the climate, including how responsive teachers are to student questions, their instructional formats and learning activities, and their sensitivity to student needs (Miller & Wang, 2019). Effective teaching strategies that allow children to work independently and develop competence, practice in small groups and with challenging learning problems, while promoting a warm and helpful learning environment can all help children stay engaged in the learning process (Miller & Wang, 2019).
Teacher-Child Relationships
In addition to fostering classroom climate, teachers also form one-on-one relationships with their students that can influence the way each child perceives school and learning. Teachers who promote communication and are open to student feedback are more likely to foster healthy teacher-student relationship s, which in turn increases student motivation (Liu, 2021). Teachers and students who are excited to see each other, look forward to exchanging ideas, and are comfortable approaching one another are considered to have a close teacher-child relationship. Close relationships are beneficial for learning both because they allow children to be happy to attend school and listen to their teacher and because they motivate teachers to excel in their profession. Children who form close relationships with their teachers are more likely to have a high level of prosocial and cooperative behaviors (Portilla et al., 2014).
Some children may form dependent teacher-child relationships in which they are particularly clingy, overly attached, or possessive of their teacher. This relationship may occur with children who are nervous, shy, or new to formal education (Bosman et al., 2021). They often desire more one-on-one attention from their teacher than is possible, they may require extra assistance during learning activities, they may become upset when their teacher is absent or unavailable, and they may use their teacher as an emotional support system. However, when teachers are provided with training and support to improve teacher-student relationships, children and teachers are more likely to form healthier relationships and learning environments (Bosman et al., 2021).
Finally, children and teachers may form conflicted relationships, in which their exchanges are characterized by arguments, suspicion, power struggles, and conflict (Mason et al., 2017). Some children who form conflicted relationships with their teachers may struggle with motivation to do well and instead may dislike and harbor hostile feelings toward school. For example, one study found higher rates of teacher-perceived behavioral problems among Norwegian school-aged children who had conflicted relationships with their teachers (Drugli, 2013). Conflicted relationships can also have a negative impact on the teacher. For example, teachers in such relationships are at greater risk of burnout and struggle more with class organization and quality (Hoglund et al., 2015). Promoting greater classroom support for teachers and positive behavior in the classrooms can improve teacher self-efficacy and teacher perceptions of student behaviors and increase teacher-student relationship quality.
Cultural expectations may also influence the development of conflicted relationships. Teachers may enter the classroom with expectations based on their own culture or influenced by stereotypes they hold. For example, children of color as well as children from low-SES backgrounds are more likely to be perceived by their teachers to have more socioemotional problems (Ginsberg, 2023). White teachers often see their relationships with White children more positively than their relationships with Black children, particularly leaving Black boys at a higher risk of poor teacher-child relationship (Rudasill et al., 2023). However, when close teacher-student relationships are present for children of color, including Black and Latino boys, it can serve as a protective factor and promote learning gains such as in language skills (Goldberg & Iruka, 2023). 7
Over the course of middle childhood, this racial gap in teacher-child conflict widens (Spilt & Hughes, 2015). Unintentional biases among school officials can interact with systemic racism and students’ adverse childhood experiences to foster conditions that increase academic failure and dropout risk, particularly for historically marginalized racial and ethnic children. However, these trajectories can be shifted by greater classroom diversity, an increase in teacher diversity, and provision of educational interventions at the school level that promote positive behavioral support and cultural competence (La Salle et al., 2020; Rasheed et al., 2020).
Deficit versus Asset-Based Models in the Classroom
Valencia (1997, 2012) pointed out that for many decades, the education system has blamed the poor school performance of children of color on genetic, familial, and cultural deficits. This deficit model assumes that little can be done to assist the students who are at risk of failing in class and overlooks the wealth of cultural communication styles, intellectual skills, and creativity children bring to the classroom. A strength- or asset-based model, in contrast (Flint & Jaggers, 2021), assumes that all children have internal, familial, and cultural assets or strengths that they use in the classroom, learning and thriving despite facing odds like poverty and systemic racism.
In fact, the asset-based model values the insights students bring to the classroom from their cultural experiences, while at the same time striving to reduce injustices based on oppression and other social factors (Muhammad, 2020). For example, educators have documented educational projects that highlight the diversity of identities in the classroom, such as a “Who Am I?” project (Zhang–Yu et al., 2020) that allows students to connect the learning of new information to their prior knowledge and personal experience.
Interventions can take the form of training and teaching strategies that recognize and value students’ cultural backgrounds in all aspects of learning. In line with a strength-based model , Muhammad (2020) suggests focusing on identity and building on the creativity and talent children possess. Hammond (2014) notes that culturally inclusive teaching environments are not only about celebrating Black History month or Cinco de Mayo but rather about truly understanding the diverse ways in which families communicate in different cultures, celebrating and valuing those diverse communication patterns, and leveraging them in the classroom.
Numerous programs have been developed in schools using an antibias framework to improve outcomes for marginalized children. For example, summer programs that support children in economically disadvantaged households or neighborhoods can reduce achievement gaps in academic skills. Programs are more likely to be effective if they include interactive learning, highly trained teachers, and small class sizes (Lynch et al., 2023; Trends, 2009). Improving inclusion in the classroom can have a positive influence on students’ growth, learning, and feelings of safety in the classroom. One study of Canadian teachers found that when teachers were more culturally sensitive and aware, they were more likely to focus on and promote Indigenous students’ overall skills and knowledge, which in turn improved students’ academic achievement (Perso, 2020).
A U.S. study found that nationwide almost 75 percent of K–12 teachers surveyed said they provide antibias education in different forms in their classroom (Woo et al., 2022). The study recommended developing and adopting clear and shared standards and evidence-based practices for antibias education and investing in curriculum development and selection and hiring practices (Woo et al., 2022). Teachers who used antibias curriculum materials said their students were more respectful of diversity and developed more positive social identities (Woo et al., 2022). For example, New Jersey’s department of education and division on civil rights have developed several resources and a plan to prevent, interrupt, and deal with instances of bias in schools (New Jersey DCR & DOE, 2023). However, there is still a long way to go to ensure equitable practices for all children’s social and educational development to benefit.
Link to Learning
This article describes a study by Nelson and Johnson (2023) that examined White teachers’ responses to working in racially diverse schools where they were either in the majority or the minority.
Positive Youth Development
Outside formal education, middle childhood is a time of expanding our network to include new extracurricular activities and connections. Children in this developmental phase often engage in music, sports, art, and civic activities that allow them to practice teamwork, leadership, and personal growth skills. Members of scouting groups, for example, often learn many interpersonal and self-regulatory skills that help them to better communicate, understand, and interact with the world around them. Engaging in fundraisers for charitable organizations, organizing community events, and learning about their local, regional, and global issues helps children to better understand their part in the world.
Despite clear benefits, however, extracurricular activities also highlight disparities in SES . Though they have the most to gain from after-school programs, children from lower SES backgrounds have the least access to them due to barriers such as expense and transportation needs (Heath et al., 2022; Smink, 2013). As communities recognize this, many are taking steps to make extracurricular activities more accessible to families with lower SES. For example, many foundations provide support for after-school programs designed to reach children from families with lower SES and immigrant families (Heath et al., 2022).
Whether extracurriculars consist of a coding club at the library, arts at school, sports activities, or environmental activism, the goal is often to facilitate the development of resilience (Figure 8.11). As you’ve learned, resilience is the emotional ability to respond to stressful events with determination, perseverance, and adaptability. For instance, a child who is studying dance may need to commit long hours to performing a routine (determination), continue performing over many weeks and months (perseverance), and learn to accept feedback and become better at certain parts of the routine (adaptability).
Actively helping children by understanding and promoting predictors of well-being, thriving, and prosocial development in childhood and beyond is the focus of positive youth development (PYD) programs (Johnson & Ettekal, 2023). There are a variety of PYD models and theories, and they may use a range of techniques to engage youth, but at their core they all focus on promoting thriving in healthy youth development (Johnson & Ettekal, 2023). The PYD programs use a strengths-based model to focus on helping children develop by using their existing resources. For example, participation in sports is one way to engage youth and has been linked to positive socioemotional and mental health outcomes in children (Whitley et al., 2019) as well as to the learning of life skills and feelings of competence and confidence (Bruner et al., 2023).
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