11.3: Sexuality in Early Adulthood
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define young adult sexuality
- Define sexual identity and orientation
- Explain the connections between sexual activity and health
- Explain the risk factors for and consequences of sexual assault and harassment
During adolescence, David realized he was attracted to other males. Within his small community, David worried about rejection and even physical harm if other people knew he was gay and hid his sexual orientation throughout high school. Away at college in a large urban center, David joined the school’s LGBTQ+ student group and was fully out to his university community; however, when he went home on breaks, he “went back in the closet.” At the beginning of his senior year, he had his first sexual encounter and developed a romantic relationship with his partner. As their connection grew, it became more difficult, and more uncomfortable, to hide this important part of his life. After some minor mistruths about how holidays and breaks were being spent, David decided it was time to come out to his family. To his surprise, they were generally accepting of his sexual orientation. With their support, David was able to gradually start living as his authentic self in his hometown. Several years later, he is closer to his family than ever.
Emerging adulthood is typically a time of sexual exploration along with exploration of other aspects of ourselves. This can include the formation of social and emotional bonds with others, which we’ll discuss in more detail in Chapter 12 Social and Emotional Development in Early Adulthood (Ages 18 to 29). However, sexuality also has physical and cognitive aspects, such as achieving sexual maturity and choices about sexual behavior. Here, we’ll focus on these dimensions of sexuality as a part of adult development.
Sexual Maturity and Sexual Behavior
The Sexuality Education Resource Centre (SERC) in Manitoba, Canada, which states that a person’s sexuality is self-defined and can change over time depending on age and circumstances. The SERC portrays sexuality as being in a “wheel” composed of different components that interact with each other (SERC MB, n.d.), as seen in Figure 11.13. Here, we’ll likewise define sexuality as a person’s feelings, beliefs, and behaviors regarding attraction to others, sexual activity, and gender identity.
Sexuality is a complicated concept with many influences, including biology, culture, religion, the views of our family and friends, and the portrayals of sexuality in mass media (Macleod & McCabe, 2020; Potard et al., 2008) (Figure 11.14). Because culture evolves, so do attitudes and behaviors regarding sexuality. For several decades, the General Social Survey (GSS) from the University of Chicago has tracked U.S. societal opinions on attitudes toward various facets of sexuality. Over that time studies have found greater acceptance toward living together before marriage and having sex before marriage (GSS Data Explorer, 2022; Harding & Jencks, 2003). However, in the United States and some European countries, these behaviors are now widely accepted, though they are still frowned upon or even prohibited in other countries (Rokach & Patel, 2021). Societal acceptance of non-heterosexual relationships, and the experiences people have when coming out, likewise vary by cohort (Martos et al., 2015; van Bergen et al., 2021). In some parts of the world, young females undergo procedures meant to decrease sexual pleasure, and marriage sometimes occurs before reaching puberty to reduce the incidence of premarital sex (Rokach & Patel, 2021; UN Women, 2019). However, in other cultures, premarital sex is considered a natural aspect of the transition from adolescent to adult and is encouraged (Christensen, 1960; Rokach & Patel, 2021).
Why do people engage in sexual activity? Beyond the obvious reasons that it’s enjoyable, there are psychosocial reasons as well. Sexual activity is a way to express feelings to and establish connections with others, an important developmental task of emerging adulthood. Sexual interactions can also be a method of exploring one’s identity, particularly for LGB youth who are questioning their sexual orientation or who feel the need to downplay their sexual orientation due to social disapproval (Phillips II et al., 2019). Social factors may also influence this (Figure 11.15). A study examining heterosexual women’s same-sex encounters—specifically, kissing publicly—at college parties indicated that there was no single motive for this behavior; instead, it was motivated by one of several factors, such as being drunk, wanting to experiment, and enjoying the attention this behavior produced, especially attention from men (Yost & McCarthy, 2012). Sexual activity is also considered to be a standard element of romantic relationships, and some people engage in it out of feelings of obligation or duty—feelings that can be exploited, particularly in cultures where women are expected to be submissive and marital rape isn’t regarded as a crime (UN Women, 2019).
The experience and expression of sexuality are unique to everyone. The peak of sexual activity generally occurs between the ages of 18 and 24, though the number of adults in this age group who were sexually active decreased somewhat between the years 2000 and 2018, especially men (Ueda et al., 2020). Becoming sexually active is a common part of growing up, although it’s not a mandatory element (i.e., people who are asexual or who abstain from sexual activity for religious or other reasons aren’t somehow “defective”). Sexual activity is also, for many people, a healthy and enjoyable aspect of their lives. However, sometimes sexual activity has unwanted health consequences, such as sexually transmitted infections or unintended pregnancy.
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Recent data indicate that in the United States, about 7 percent of the population identifies as LGBTQ+, including 20 percent of adults in “Generation Z”, the group born between 1997–2012 (Jones, 2024). Looking beyond the U.S., a survey of 30 countries indicated that about 9 percent of the world’s population identifies as LGBTQ+, although there’s a lot of variability between countries; for example, 15 percent of Brazil’s population identifies as LBGTQ+, but only 4 percent of Peru’s population does (Jackson, 2023). In both sets of data, the most common LGBTQ+ identity was as bisexual; about 4 percent of the U.S. and world population identify as bisexual, and 57 percent of the LGBTQ+ adults in the U.S. claim this identity (Jackson, 2023; Jones, 2024).
Figuring out one’s sexual orientation and gender identity doesn’t look the same for everyone. In cultures where LGBTQ+ people are stigmatized or even criminalized, there may be significant risks to coming out, and some people may choose not to do so until later in life if at all (Rosati et al., 2020). Even in countries with LGBTQ+ friendly policies, that doesn’t mean that individual people or communities will be accepting. Also, “ coming out ” isn’t a singular event, but often involves several tasks, often described as identifying an attraction to others, identifying as having a particular sexual orientation, having one’s first relationship corresponding to that sexual orientation, and disclosing sexual orientation to others (Hall et al., 2021; Martos et al., 2015). These tasks typically don’t occur simultaneously, although they do appear to happen in a fairly consistent order, and the specific timing of these tasks may vary. In general, men achieve these tasks earlier than women, and people identifying as gay or lesbian achieve most of these tasks earlier than people identifying as bisexual. There are also cohort differences in that people ages 45–59 reported the relationship and disclosure tasks occurring later than people ages 30–44, who in turn reported these tasks occurring later than people ages 18–29. These differences likely reflect changing societal attitudes regarding the acceptability of non-heterosexual relationships (Martos et al., 2015; van Bergen et al., 2021).
The study by Martos and colleagues indicates that identifying as lesbian, gay, or bisexual commonly happens in mid-adolescence, but disclosure to others may not occur until emerging adulthood (2015). Emerging adulthood, as we’ve already seen, is a time of continued identity exploration and commitment after we’ve gained more independence. This pulling away from our family is often accompanied by increased connections with similar peers. Studies of college students in the United States suggest that between 7 percent and 14 percent of heterosexual women and roughly 4 percent of men report having at least one same-sex encounter. These rates are lower in other countries, such as Thailand, most likely due to cultural differences in the acceptability of same-sex involvement (Morgan, 2013). Heterosexual women consistently report more same-sex attraction and encounters than heterosexual men do, potentially because of internalized standards of “appropriate” male behavior and a general greater incidence of sexual fluidity in women (Morgan, 2013; Yost & McCarthy, 2012) (Figure 11.16).
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Because sexual activity generally peaks during this time, it’s not surprising that the years from ages 18–24 are also the peak years of risk for contracting a sexually transmitted infection (STI) , a disease caused by certain types of viruses, bacteria, or microorganisms and spread through contact with bodily fluids such as semen and blood. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in 2022 almost half the new cases of STIs occurred in people between 15 and 24 years of age (CDC, 2024). The use of the phrase “sexually transmitted” is a little misleading, because some STIs can be acquired outside of sexual activity; for example, HIV can be passed to nursing babies through breastmilk. However, regardless of the mode of transmission, the health effects of STIs are the same.
There are several different STIs, each with its own cause. Syphilis, chlamydia, and gonorrhea are caused by bacteria. Trichomoniasis is caused by a parasite. Common symptoms of these four STIs are painful urination, discharge (including blood) from the genitals or anus, and pelvic or abdominal pain, although some people may not have any symptoms. These STIs can be treated with antibiotics; however, a person can get re-infected if they come into contact with the bacteria/parasite again. It’s also important to take the antibiotics as directed, including taking all the medicine even if symptoms improve. Only taking some of an antibiotic prescription is believed to cause bacteria to become drug-resistant (Muteeb et al., 2023), making future infections harder to treat.
Other STIs are caused by viruses. Genital warts are caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV) and typically occur as small cauliflower-like bumps on the genitals, although some people may not have any symptoms. These warts can be treated with special medicine (not the same over-the-counter medicine used to treat warts on other parts of the body like the fingers). Herpes is caused by the virus herpes simplex , which comes in two forms. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) typically causes “oral herpes” and most often appears as cold sores around the mouth. HSV-1 isn’t technically an STI, although it can be contracted from a person with HSV-1 through kissing or oral sex. Most people with HSV-1 get it some way other than sexual contact, such as sharing a cup with an infected person, and it’s very common in childhood. Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), on the other hand, is usually spread just through sexual activity, although it can also be passed to babies during a vaginal birth. It typically appears as blisters or sores on the genitals, although again some people may not have any symptoms. The blisters may go away after treatment with medication, but may come back during times of illness or stress. When we talk about someone “having herpes”, we’re most often talking about HSV-2, though not always.
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) produces different symptoms than HPV and HSV-2. The initial infection typically involves not warts or sores on the genitals, but flu-like symptoms such as fever, chills, fatigue, and a sore throat. Often these symptoms go away within a couple of weeks, and then the person may not have any symptoms for as many as 10–15 years (HIV.gov, 2022). Unfortunately, this means that people may unknowingly spread HIV to others during that time. Also, without treatment, the virus slowly destroys the body’s immune system, and the person eventually develops severe medical problems such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, dementia, and some types of cancers. Some of these are opportunistic infections, medical conditions that occur more frequently in people with weakened immune systems who can’t fight them off. An HIV-positive person who develops these types of medical problems is now said to have acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a late stage of HIV infection in which the body’s immune system is significantly weakened and susceptible to a wide variety of diseases.
A viral STI can’t be treated with antibiotics, and a person with HPV or HSV-2 will carry the virus for the rest of their life. They may need to take medication regularly to prevent or treat flare-ups. Similarly, a person with HIV will need medication lifelong to prevent the virus from continuing to multiply inside their body. With early and high-quality medical care, they can enjoy good health and quality of life for many years.
The incidence of STIs is unequal across the population. Non-Hispanic Black individuals make up only 12.6 percent of the U.S. population but account for 31 percent of chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis cases. This high proportion is likely due not to a greater incidence of sexual behavior, but to lack of access to reproductive and sexual health care (CDC, 2024), typical for marginalized groups. For example, HIV is more common among men who have sex with men (CDC, 2021); in the early days of the HIV pandemic, the disease wasn’t taken seriously and people with HIV were treated poorly because both being gay and having a disease were stigmatized.
Diagnosing and treating STIs is crucial to avoid permanent health consequences. HPV is known to cause six types of cancer, including of the cervix, penis, and vagina (National Cancer Institute, 2023.) HPV can’t be eliminated from the body, but a person who knows they have it can get regular medical checkups to detect cancer early enough for treatment. Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis can all cause infertility, chronic pelvic pain, and complications in pregnancy such as premature birth. If untreated for decades, syphilis can damage the brain and produce blood clots, stroke, and dementia. Treatment for HIV works best if started early, and while people who are HIV-positive may not know for several years, testing is available and recommended.
The stigma associated with STIs—and sometimes with sexual activity in general—can prevent people from seeking treatment. Deciding to engage in sexual activity requires taking increased responsibility for monitoring your health, however, including getting regular STI testing and being honest with health care providers about behaviors and symptoms.
In recent years, treatments for HIV have dramatically improved meaning that most people with HIV can manage the virus through antiretroviral therapy (ART). ART involves taking medicines that allow people to get and stay at a level of virus suppression that helps them to stay healthy and means they will not transmit HIV to other during sexual intercourse (CDC, 2024).
Pregnancy in Early Adulthood
You learned earlier about the process and milestones of pregnancy and childbirth (Chapter 2 Genetic, Prenatal, and Perinatal Health). Pregnancy is exciting and welcome news for many (Figure 11.11), but not for all. “Unintended pregnancy” refers to any situation in which a person becomes pregnant without intending to.
In the United States, approximately 3.6 million people give birth each year, with 48.6 percent of these people being between the ages of 18–29 (Osterman et al., 2024). Determining how many of these pregnancies are unintended is challenging because many of them are likely to occur among people who aren’t married, and being a single parent is still associated with some stigma in many cultures. Therefore, people may not report this information thoroughly.
As you learned in Chapter 2 Genetic, Prenatal, and Perinatal Health, pregnancy causes many physical changes, which can be hard on the body during the pregnancy and postpartum period. Worldwide, maternal mortality is still a concern, with around 287,000 birth mothers dying in childbirth each year—most often in middle and lower income countries (World Health Organization, 2024). However, most pregnancy-related deaths can be prevented through effective prenatal and perinatal care (CDC, 2024) and the birth mother's body generally physically recovers from the pregnancy and delivery during the first couple months after delivery (Lopez-Gonzalez & Kopparapu, 2022). For those who decide to keep and raise a baby, becoming a parent is a significant transition that's expensive, emotionally challenging but often rewarding, and. time-consuming.
This is likely one of the reasons, we see a societal trend to delay parenthood until later in early adulthood or even in middle adulthood for those who choose to become parents. In addition, we have seen trends of more people choosing not to become parents often citing financial concerns (APA, 2024). Mothers in particular still take on a higher caregiving load in most families with small children and additionally face a high deal of societal pressure, often known as "mommy guilt" to bear the main responsibility of the child's wellbeing (Constantinou et al., 2020). This pressure can be present across family types including in particular single mothers and heterosexual couples, even when the couple has a high level of shared responsibility. While fathers take on much more caregiving responsibilities than was common in decades past in the U.S., mothers are still much more likely to reduce or leave the workforce than fathers (Heggeness, 2020).
Choosing to become a caregiver and starting a family can be a fulfilling part of an individuals identity. Planned parenting often brings psychological fulfillment and wellbeing, enjoyment of family socioemotional experiences, and can contribute to a person's sense of meaning in life (Chen et al., 2016). This can mean that for many becoming a parent can be another important part of identity formation and commitment, best facilitated by having social support, control over the choice to become a parent, and knowledge about parenting effectively (Chen et al., 2016; Piotrowski, 2020).
Parenthood can also affect the transition to adulthood. Becoming a parent is a very adult, and often rewarding, responsibility that can help define our identity. But in early adulthood it can also interfere with the achievement of identity tasks such as furthering an educational or training program and starting a career (Landberg et al., 2019) (Landberg et al., 2019). People may find an identity in becoming a parent, but it may also delay or prevent them from exploring other facets of their identity; of course, we can say the same about other choices we commit to.
Both STI and pregnancy prevention share some similar strategies, and some foundational elements. First, without completely avoiding sexual activity (known as abstinence ), guaranteed prevention of STIs and pregnancy is nearly impossible. Thus, there is no truly “safe sex” and precautions instead can provide “safer sex.” When choosing a pregnancy or STI prevention method, it’s important to be aware of your health status and use good decision-making to determine what’s likely to work best for you and any partners.
Abstinence is often said to be the most reliable method for avoiding STIs and pregnancy (CDC, 2023). However, not everyone understands “abstinence” the same way. Some people consider abstinence to mean avoiding any kind of sexually-related contact, including oral sex and mutual masturbation. Others use this term only to mean avoiding penetrative intercourse (Byers et al., 2009; Hans & Kimberly, 2011). These varying definitions of this term can give different impressions about a person’s sexual activity and could put them at risk for contracting an STI. For example, a person who engages in oral sex but not intercourse could contract herpes while still considering themselves abstinent. When discussing abstinence, either in a personal conversation, a health-related setting, or a research context, it’s important to make sure you know how others define abstinence.
Other behavior-based STI prevention methods include being in a monogamous relationship, reducing one’s number of sex partners, and avoiding drug and alcohol use. Because drugs and alcohol can impair judgment, people who use substances are at higher risk of STIs because they may engage more often in risky sexual behaviors like unprotected sex or sex with multiple partners (Baskin-Sommers & Sommers, 2006; Kusunoki & Barber, 2020). There are also medications (both shots and pills) to reduce the chances of getting HIV. These medications are called pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and are meant to be taken on a regular basis—a similar strategy as birth control pills, but for preventing HIV and not pregnancy.
Apart from abstinence, condoms are the only method effective at preventing both pregnancy and STIs. Condoms are called a barrier method because they prevent exchange of bodily fluids. Another barrier method used for STI prevention is a dental dam , a thin piece of latex or polyurethane that’s placed over the vulva or anus prior to oral sex. Other barrier methods that are used as pregnancy prevention but not STI prevention include diaphragms, cervical caps, and contraceptive sponges. Each of these is inserted into the vagina prior to sex and work to keep semen from reaching the uterus. They’re also typically used with spermicide , a gel that kills sperm cells, increasing the effectiveness of pregnancy prevention. All of these barrier methods have to be placed before sex and removed afterward; they’re not left in place between sexual encounters. Removal should be done following the product’s directions or as advised by a health-care provider to optimize their effectiveness.
Some pregnancy prevention methods are hormone based. Birth control pills, contraceptive shots, and contraceptive implants each contain the synthetic hormone progestin, which prevents ovulation. Contraceptive shots and implants are long-lasting (3 months and 5 years respectively). Birth control pills must be taken daily, and medications like antibiotics can have contraindications that may make them ineffective.
Other methods of pregnancy prevention are more complex. An intrauterine device (IUD) is a small T-shaped device that’s inserted into the uterus via the vagina. It works by either preventing ovulation or reducing the movements of sperm. Unlike a diaphragm, an IUD can stay in place long-term (several years); however, it must be inserted and removed by a health-care provider. There are also surgical birth control methods.
Link to Learning
Many college campuses as well as local community health clinics may have health centers where you can get tested for STIs. However, if you’re not able to access this service or choose not to, there are tools you can use to find a testing center.
- If you’re in the United States, you can find STI testing locations through the CDC website.
- If you’re in Europe, you can use the European Test Finder website to search by country, city, and type of services needed.
- If you’re in Africa, South America, or Asia, you can use the Building Healthy Online Communities site.
Sexual Harassment and Sexual Violence
So far we've been talking about sexual activity as always consensual, relatively common, and hopefully enjoyable aspects of life in early adulthood. Unfortunately, some experiences fall outside of that: sexual harassment and sexual violence.
Any unwanted sexual activity that is forced on another person in any way without their consent is considered an act of sexual violence (National Sexual Violence Resource Center, 2010). Force can involve verbal, physical, or emotional behaviors, such as manipulation. Sexual violence may include assault, abuse, harassment, exploitation, public exposure, or stalking behaviors. Regardless of the type of sexual violence, all acts of sexual violence involve harm to another person. Sexual harassment is a broad term referring to a range of actions representing unwanted physical or verbal attention with a sexual basis. It most commonly involves behaviors that make a person uncomfortable and interfere with that person’s ability to engage in typical activities such as going to school, working, or participating in extracurricular settings, like a sports club or religious group. These behaviors don’t even have to be directed at a specific person to be considered sexual harassment. Repeatedly making negative comments about a specific gender or talking about sexual acts or fantasies could constitute sexual harassment even if it just occurred within earshot of a person who wasn’t directly included in the conversation. Sexual harassment often involves a power differential in that the harasser may be in a position of authority, such as a boss, teacher, or spiritual leader. However, this isn’t a requirement to define sexual harassment; it can occur among peers, such as among teammates or classmates. Some acts of sexual harassment, such as rape or unwanted touching, are also considered sexual assault. Sexual assault is defined as nonconsensual sexual contact. Consent must be explicitly given; “not saying no” is not the same as saying “yes”. A person who’s unconscious or too scared to refuse has not given consent . Neither has a person who’s unable to make informed decisions due to intoxication or cognitive impairment.
Link to Learning
If you or someone you know are experiencing sexual assault or harassment, reach out to the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN) for help. Call the National Sexual Assault Hotline at 1-800-656-HOPE or chat through the RAINN website for immediate, confidential support.
Incidence of Sexual Harassment and Assault
How common are sexual harassment and sexual assault in early adulthood? According to a 2019 survey of 893 adults in the United States, nearly a third of these participants (32.7 percent) reported experiencing sexual harassment between the ages of 18–29, with 24.6 percent reporting experiencing sexual assault. (In this study, sexual harassment and sexual assault weren’t mutually exclusive categories; a person could report experiencing both.) For context, the rates of sexual harassment in this age group were 105 percent higher than for respondents over age 30, and the rates of sexual assault were 65 percent higher. Women were more likely than men to report sexual harassment (37.4 percent vs 22.4 percent) and sexual assault (36.0 percent vs 16.0 percent; Mumford et al., 2020). These rates in general are also comparable to many other countries; statistics indicate that approximately a third of women worldwide experience sexual violence (UN Women, 2019).
Unfortunately, college campuses—common environments for young adults—aren’t immune to these problems. A large-scale study of sexual assault and harassment reports on college campuses between 1966–2017 found that between 11–73 percent (median 49 percent) of women reported sexual harassment at college. Sexual harassment was more likely to happen to women who were younger, economically insecure, and of an ethnic or sexual minority group. All of these factors indicate a vulnerable population, and perhaps not surprisingly, this study noted that over half these incidents had gone unreported to university personnel. Interestingly, data indicated rates of sexual assault and violence declined during the period being examined, While sexual violence is a higher risk for women and girls, research estimates that 27 percent of men have been victimized at some point in their lives (Thomas & Kopel, 2023). Additionally, transgender individuals are at a much higher risk of being victims of sexual violence (Stotzer, 2009). Due to the prevalence of these crimes, prevention and intervention work needs to include a community and societal wide response.
Preventing Sexual Violence and Sexual Harassment
One issue sometimes noted is that many “prevention efforts” are aimed at potential victims, not at potential perpetrators. For example, telling people to keep an eye on their drinks at parties is helpful, but it would be even more helpful if other people didn’t slip drugs into others’ drinks in the first place. Suggesting that women not walk alone at night is another example that focuses the burden of preventing sexual violence on women and unintentionally may contribute to victim blaming and other rape myths. Higher endorsement of rape myths, including those that put the burden on potential victims, is associated with an increased likelihood of perpetrating sexual assault as well as with a higher rate of sexual assault in that community - including on college campuses (O'Connor, 2021). At the root of many cases of sexual- and gender-based discrimination appear to be individual and cultural beliefs about gender roles and behavior; e.g., men are expected to be dominant while women are expected to be submissive, even regarding consenting to sex (UN Women, 2019). These beliefs are common in many African and Asian cultures (de Villiers et al., 2021; Olson-Strom & Rao, 2020) and is also reflected in the Latino values of machismo (Kim et al., 2017). In the United Kingdom, “ lad culture ”—which includes sexist and homophobic behavior as well as heavy alcohol consumption and a tendency toward violence—is associated with the beliefs that men are entitled to sexual intercourse, women secretly enjoy being raped, and verbal, physical, and sexual harassment are acceptable male behaviors (Phipps et al., 2018). Teaching and practicing safety behaviors is important, but a more proactive approach would involve addressing the reasons why people mistreat others in the first place.
Some groups are attempting to do just that. For example, Men as Peacemakers, a nonprofit organization located in Minnesota, provides programming aimed at teaching men to avoid and resist all forms of violence against women, including some programming aimed specifically at college students. Similarly, in South Africa, the One Man Can Intervention addresses specific cultural views of gender norms and encourages men to become advocates for gender equality in all forms, including ending sexual violence. While data regarding the effectiveness of these types of programs are somewhat mixed, the results generally lend support to the idea that both attitudes and behaviors can be changed and thus lead to lower rates of discrimination and maltreatment (de Villiers et al., 2021; Flood, 2022; Wright et al., 2020).
The anti-sexual assault movement began in the U.S. with major changes in legal definitions shifting up through the 1990s. For example, marital rape was not recognized as a crime in every U.S. state until 1993 and the Violence Against Women Act was pivotal in shaping current policies and advocacy resources beginning in 1994 (WCSAP, 2024; Tulane University, 2024). This was followed by the establishment of many organizations and a wealth of advocacy work, often performed by women and survivors, to both prevention sexual violence and support recovery for survivors of sexual violence (Tulane University, 2024).
Other changes occur at a public policy level. In the United States, for example, Title IX is a federal policy aimed at addressing sexual and gender-based discrimination in educational settings. It contains regulations for reporting and responding to incidents of sexual assault, abuse, and harassment, including provision of counseling services to survivors, even if these incidents didn’t involve the school environment. However, changes were made during the Trump administration due to concerns about lack of due process for people accused of sexual violence. Following these changes, sexual violence on college campuses increased by 3 percent for women and 1.5 percent for men (Rochester, 2022). Tavares and Wodon (2018) theorized that higher education was weaker than the workplace in addressing sexual harassment, noting that as of 2017, 60 percent of countries worldwide lacked laws addressing sexual harassment in education settings, while only 21 percent lacked these laws for the workplace. Finally, sexual violence can be prevented by focusing more on improved early sexual education and a better understanding of consent culture, to learn more refer to 9.2 Puberty, Sexual Behavior, and Sexual Health in Adolescence.
Intersections and Contexts: Title IX and Equivalents around the World
Title IX was first enacted in the United States in 1972 to address inequities in education (Rochester, 2022), but has since been expanded to include all forms of discrimination based on sex and gender. Under this policy, any educational institutions receiving federal money are required to provide a fair educational experience to their students regardless of sex, gender, sexual orientation, or gender identity. This includes avoiding gender-based discrimination and preferential treatment in the classroom, allocating equivalent resources to athletics teams regardless of player gender, and responding quickly and appropriately to incidents of sexual harassment, sexual abuse, and sexual assault.
Do countries outside the U.S. have similar policies to protect students? It depends on where you go. In 2011, the human rights organization Council of Europe (CoE) developed a treaty called the “Istanbul Convention”, which states that governments have a responsibility to prevent violence against women. This treaty has been ratified by 39 of the 46 nations that belong to the CoE, including 22 of the 27 nations in the European Union (Council of Europe, 2011), and has led to improvements in how many of those nations handle these issues. For example, in France, each public university is now required to have an employee trained to handle issues of gender inequality and discrimination, including sex- and gender-based maltreatment (Rochester, 2022).
In other places, the outlook is less optimistic, often in ways that reflect the gender-related views of the larger culture (Eng & Yang, 2020; Rao & Olson-Strom, 2020). As of 2017, 65 percent of countries in the East Asia and Pacific region and 86 percent of countries in the Middle East and North African region lacked laws addressing sexual harassment in education settings (Tavares & Wodon, 2018). In some Asian cultures, textbooks and course content downplay or even eliminate discussion of women’s contributions to the field of study, and instructors may openly show bias toward male students (Olson-Strom & Rao, 2020). LGBTQ+ students may have even more difficulty due to the stigma that exists in many cultures; for example, expressions of same-sex or same-gender sexual activity or interest are considered criminal acts in some nations, including Malaysia and Brunei. This makes it hard for students to seek help and also makes it difficult for public universities to support LGBTQ+ students due to likely backlash (Bondestam & Lundqvist, 2020; Eng & Yang, 2020).
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