4.1: Systems of Government

Most countries are composed of multiple subnational regions. In America, these regions are called states; in other countries, they may be called provinces, cantons, departments, prefectures, parishes, or oblasts. Subdividing a country in this way has many advantages, but it also raises the question of how and to what extent the subdivisions should be integrated into the country’s political system.

The most common system of government in the world today is a unitary system, in which power is concentrated at the national level and most decisions are made by a strong national government. Subnational governments may exist, but usually they are much weaker and have far fewer responsibilities than the national government. Countries with unitary systems benefit from uniform, centralized decision-making but tend to enact “one-size-fits-all” policies that allow for little regional variation. Because of this, unitary systems are best suited to countries that are small and culturally homogeneous. Chile, France, and Japan are some examples of countries with unitary systems.

The opposite of a highly centralized unitary system is a highly decentralized confederal system, in which power is concentrated at the subnational level and the national government is comparably weak. The United States under the Articles of Confederation had a confederal structure, as did the Confederate States of America during the Civil War: although both had national governments, their subnational governments wielded most of the power. Confederal systems give considerable leeway to their regions at the expense of national unity. No modern country operates under a truly confederal system, but some international organizations (such as the United Nations and the European Union) are confederal in nature, with countries acting as the “subnational” units within the larger overall structure.

Falling between unitary and confederal systems, a federal system is one in which power is divided roughly evenly between national and subnational governments. Although the abilities and responsibilities assigned to national and subnational governments in federal systems are different, the two levels are approximately equal to each other in terms of power. The modern United States has a federal structure, as do other countries such as Brazil and Germany.

These systems are not “pure” types, such that each country fits neatly into one of three categories. Rather, they exist on a spectrum of centralization, with unitary systems at one end, confederal systems at the other end, and federal systems in the middle. The world’s countries can be arranged at different points along this spectrum. For example, the United States and Canada both have federal systems, but the United States’ is less centralized than Canada’s. Countries can also centralize or decentralize over time. The United States has gradually become more centralized since its founding, although it has remained a federal system since the Constitution was ratified.

In the United States, the term federal is often used to mean “national.” When someone says “the federal government” or “federal law,” they usually mean national government and national law, as contrasted with state government and state law.