Glossary

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Glossary Entries

Word(s)	Definition	Image	Caption	Link	Source
Antipositivism	the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values
Conflict Theory	a theory that looks at society as a competition for limited resources
Constructivism	an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be
Culture	a group's shared practices, values, and beliefs
Dramaturgical Analysis	a technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance
Dynamic Equilibrium	a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society work together properly
Dysfunctions	social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society
Figuration	the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior
Function	the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity
Functionalism	a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society
Generalized Others	the organized and generalized attitude of a social group
Grand Theories	an attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change
Hypothesis	a testable proposition
Latent Functions	the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process
Macro-level	a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society
Manifest Functions	sought consequences of a social process
Micro-level Theories	the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups
Paradigms	philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them
Positivism	the scientific study of social patterns
Qualitative Sociology	in-depth interviews, focus groups, and/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data
Quantitative sociology	statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants
Reification	an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence
Significant Others	specific individuals that impact a person's life
Social Facts	the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life
Social Institutions	patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs
Social Solidarity	the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion
Society	a group of people who live in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture
Sociological Imagination	the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular
Sociology	the systematic study of society and social interaction
Symbolic Interactionism	a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)
Theory	a proposed explanation about social interactions or society
Verstehen	a German word that means to understand in a deep way
Validity	the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study
Secondary Data Analysis	using data collected by others but applying new interpretations
Samples	small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population
Random Sample	a study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population
Qualitative Data	comprise information that is subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting
Population	a defined group serving as the subject of a study
Operational Definitions	specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study
Meta-analysis	a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together
Interview	a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject
Independent vVriables	variables that cause changes in dependent variables
Hawthorne Effect	when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher
Experiment	the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions
Empirical Evidence	evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation
Correlation	when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation
Code of Ethics	a set of guidelines that the American Sociological Association has established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology
Xenocentrism	a belief that another culture is superior to one’s own
Symbols	gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture
Society	people who live in a definable community and who share a culture
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis	the way that people understand the world based on their form of language
Real Culture	the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists
Norms	the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured
Mores	the moral views and principles of a group
Language	a symbolic system of communication
Innovations	new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time
Ideal Culture	the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to
Globalization	the integration of international trade and finance markets
Folkways	direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture
Discoveries	things and ideas found from what already exists
Culture Shock	an experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life
Culture	shared beliefs, values, and practices
Cultural Relativism	the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards, and not in comparison to another culture
Countercultures	groups that reject and oppose society’s widely accepted cultural patterns
Thomas Theorem	how a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality
Society	a group of people who live in a definable community and share the same culture
Self-fulfilling Prophecy	an idea that becomes true when acted upon
Role-set	an array of roles attached to a particular status
Role Performance	the expression of a role
Rationalization	a belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition
Pastoral Societies	societies based around the domestication of animals
Mechanical Solidarity	a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture
Iron Cage	a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions
Information Societies	societies based on the production of nonmaterial goods and services
Hunter-Gatherer Societies	societies that depend on hunting wild animals and gathering uncultivated plants for survival
Habitualization	the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit
False Consciousness	a person’s beliefs and ideology that are in conflict with her best interests
Class Consciousness	the awareness of one’s rank in society
Bourgeoisie	the owners of the means of production in a society
Anomie	a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness
Agricultural Societies	societies that rely on farming as a way of life
Socialization	the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values
Resocialization	the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place
Nurture	the role that our social environment plays in self-development
Moral Development	the way people learn what is “good” and “bad” in society
Generalized Other	the common behavioral expectations of general society
Anticipatory Socialization	the way we prepare for future life roles
Triad	a three-member group
Secondary Groups	larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited
Primary Groups	small, informal groups of people who are closest to us
Normative or Voluntary Organizations	organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards
McDonaldization of Society	the increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions
Leadership Function	the main focus or goal of a leader
Iron Rule of Oligarchy	the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration
Violent Crimes	crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force
Street Crime	crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces
Social Order	an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives
Social Control	the regulation and enforcement of norms
Secondary Deviance	deviance that occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society
Primary Deviance	a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others
Positive Sanctions	rewards given for conforming to norms
Nonviolent Crimes	crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force
Master Status	a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual
Labeling Theory	the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society
Hate Crimes	attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics
Differential Association Theory	a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance
Cultural Deviance Theory	a theory that suggests conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime
Crime	a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions
Corrections System	the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offenses
Control Theory	a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society
Instrumental Function	being oriented toward a task or goal
Impersonality	the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation
Group	any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity
Expressive Leader	a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional wellbeing
Explicit Rules	the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized
Democratic Leader	a leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action
Coercive Organizations	organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital
Category	people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way
Authoritarian Leader	a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks
Utility Patents	patents that are granted for the invention or discovery of any new and useful process, product, or machine
Technology	the application of science to solve problems in daily life
Technological Diffusion	the spread of technology across borders
Planned Obsolescence	the act of a technology company planning for a product to be obsolete or unable from the time it’s created
Oligopoly	a situation in which a few firms dominate a marketplace
Net Neutrality	the principle that all Internet data should be treated equally by internet service providers
Media Globalization	the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas
Media	all print, digital, and electronic means of communication
Gatekeeping	the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media-appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount
E-readiness	the ability to sort through, interpret, and process digital knowledge
Design Patents	patents that are granted when someone has invented a new and original design for a manufactured product
Wealth	the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance
Structural Mobility	a societal change that enables a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder
Standard of Living	the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle
Social Mobility	the ability to change positions within a social stratification system
Meritocracy	an ideal system in which personal effort—or merit—determines social standing
Intergenerational Mobility	a difference in social class between different generations of a family
Global Stratification	a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole
Endogamous Marriages	unions of people within the same social category
Davis-Moore Thesis	a thesis that argues some social stratification is a social necessity
Class Traits	the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class (also called class markers)
Class	a group who shares a common social status based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation
Underground Economy	an unregulated economy of labor and goods that operates outside of governance, regulatory systems, or human protections
Subjective Poverty	a state of poverty composed of many dimensions, subjectively present when one’s actual income does not meet one’s expectations
Second World	a term from the Cold War era that describes nations with moderate economies and standards of living
Peripheral Nations	nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization
Gross National Income (GNI)	the income of a nation calculated based on goods and services produced, plus income earned by citizens and corporations headquartered in that country
Global Inequality	the concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority
GINI Coefficient	a measure of income inequality between countries using a 100-point scale, in which 1 represents complete equality and 100 represents the highest possible inequality
First World	a term from the Cold War era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies
Deindustrialization	the loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower
Debt Accumulation	the buildup of external debt, wherein countries borrow money from other nations to fund their expansion or growth goals
Chattel Slavery	a form of slavery in which one person owns another
Absolute Poverty	the state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities
Subordinate Group	a group of people who have less power than the dominant group
Social Construction of Race	the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable
Sedimentation of Racial Inequality	the intergenerational impact of de facto and de jure racism that limits the abilities of black people to accumulate wealth
Redlining	the practice of routinely refusing mortgages for households and business located in predominately minority communities
Racial Steering	the act of real estate agents directing prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race
Prejudice	biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people
Model Minority	the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment
Intersection Theory	theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes
Genocide	the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group
Ethnicity	shared culture, which may include heritage, language, religion, and more
Discrimination	prejudiced action against a group of people
Colorism	the belief that one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group
Amalgamation	the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group
Social Construction of Sexuality	socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior which shape how people see and experience sexuality
Sexual Orientation	a person’s physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)
Sex	a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females
Homophobia	an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals
Gender Role	society’s concept of how men and women should behave
Gender Dysphoria	a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces "gender identity disorder"
Double Standard	the concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men
Doing Gender	the performance of tasks based upon the gender assigned to us by society and, in turn, ourselves
Thanatology	the systematic study of death and dying
Subculture of Aging Theory	a theory that focuses on the shared community created by the elderly when they are excluded (due to age), voluntarily or involuntarily, from participating in other groups
Senescence	the aging process, including biological, intellectual, emotional, social, and spiritual changes
Secondary Aging	aging that occurs due to controllable factors like exercise and diet
Physician-assisted Suicide	the voluntary use of lethal medication provided by a medical doctor to end one’s life
Life Expectancy	the number of years a newborn is expected to live
Hospice	healthcare that treats terminally ill people by providing comfort during the dying process
Gerotranscendence	the idea that as people age, they transcend limited views of life they held in earlier times
Gerontocracy	a type of social structure wherein the power is held by a society’s oldest members
Filial Piety	deference and respect to one’s parents and ancestors in all things
Elder Abuse	the act of a caretaker intentionally depriving an older person of care or harming the person in their charge
Dependency Ratio	the number of nonproductive citizens (young, disabled, elderly) to productive working citizens
Cohort	a group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait
Baby Boomers	people in the United States born between approximately 1946 and 1964
Age Stratification Theory	a theory which states that members of society are stratified by age, just as they are stratified by race, class, and gender
Unilateral Descent	the tracing of kinship through one parent only.
Polygyny	a form of marriage in which one man is married to more than one woman at one time
Polyandry	a form of marriage in which one woman is married to more than one man at one time
Patrilineal Descent	a type of unilateral descent that follows the father’s line only
Monogamy	the act of being married to only one person at a time
Matrilineal Descent	a type of unilateral descent that follows the mother’s side only
Kinship	a person’s traceable ancestry (by blood, marriage, and/or adoption)
Family of Procreation	a family that is formed through marriage
Family Life Cycle	a set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time
Family	socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption and who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society
Cohabitation	the act of a couple sharing a residence while they are not married
Bigamy	the act of entering into marriage while still married to another person
Totemism	the belief in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings
Religious Rituals	behaviors or practices that are either required for or expected of the members of a particular group
Religious Beliefs	specific ideas that members of a particular faith hold to be true
Polytheism	a religion based on belief in multiple deities
Megachurch	a Christian church that has a very large congregation averaging more than 2,000 people who attend regular weekly services
Established Sects	sects that last but do not become denominations
Denomination	a large, mainstream religion that is not sponsored by the state
Atheism	the belief in no deities
Universal Access	the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system
Sorting	classifying students based on academic merit or potential
No Child Left Behind Act	an act that requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding
Hidden Curriculum	the type of nonacademic knowledge that people learn through informal learning and cultural transmission
Grade Inflation	the idea that the achievement level associated with an A today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with A-level work a few decades ago
Education	a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms
Cultural Capital	cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency to help one navigate a culture
Traditional Authority	power legitimized on the basis of long-standing customs
Representative Democracy	a government wherein citizens elect officials to represent their interests
Power Elite	a small group of powerful people who control much of a society
Politics	a means of studying a nation’s or group’s underlying social norms as values as evidenced through its political structure and practices
One Person, One vVte	a concept holding that each person’s vote should be counted equally
Monarchy	a form of government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until that individual dies or abdicates the throne
Democracy	a form of government that provides all citizens with an equal voice or vote in determining state policy
Charismatic Authority	power legitimized on the basis of a leader’s exceptional personal qualities
Anarchy	the absence of any organized government
Xenophobia	an illogical fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods
Subsistence Farming	farming where farmers grow only enough to feed themselves and their families
Socialism	an economic system in which there is government ownership (often referred to as “state run”) of goods and their production, with an impetus to share work and wealth equally among the members of a society
Polarization	a practice where the differences between low-end and high-end jobs become greater and the number of people in the middle levels decreases
Organic Solidarity	a form of social cohesion that arises out of the mutual interdependence created by the specialization of work
Money	an object that a society agrees to assign a value to so it can be exchanged as payment
Mechanical Solidarity	a form of social cohesion that comes from sharing similar work, education, and religion, as might be found in simpler societies
Global Commodity Chains	internationally integrated economic links that connect workers and corporations for the purpose of manufacture and marketing
Economy	the social institution through which a society’s resources (goods and services) are managed
Convergence Theory	a sociological theory to explain how and why societies move toward similarity over time as their economies develop
Capitalism	an economic system in which there is private ownership (as opposed to state ownership) and where there is an impetus to produce profit, and thereby wealth
Automation	workers being replaced by technology
Underinsured	people who spend at least 10 percent of their income on healthcare costs that are not covered by insurance
Stigmatization	the act of spoiling someone's identity; they are labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometimes even shunned due to an illness or disability
Socialized Medicine	when the government owns and runs the entire healthcare system
Sick Role	the pattern of expectations that define appropriate behavior for the sick and for those who take care of them
Private Healthcare	health insurance that a person buys from a private company; private healthcare can either be employer-sponsored or direct-purchase
Mortality	the number of deaths in a given time or place
Mood Disorders	long-term, debilitating illnesses like depression and bipolar disorder
Medicalization	the process by which aspects of life that were considered bad or deviant are redefined as sickness and needing medical attention to remedy
Legitimation	the act of a physician certifying that an illness is genuine
Impairment	the physical limitations a less-able person faces
Disability	a reduction in one’s ability to perform everyday tasks; the World Health Organization notes that this is a social limitation
Contested Illnesses	illnesses that are questioned or considered questionable by some medical professionals
Anxiety Disorders	feelings of worry and fearfulness that last for months at a time
White Flight	the migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas toward the suburbs
Urban Sociology	the subfield of sociology that focuses on the study of urbanization
Sex Ratio	the ratio of men to women in a given population
Population Pyramid	a graphic representation that depicts population distribution according to age and sex
Pollution	the introduction of contaminants into an environment at levels that are damaging
Mortality Rate	a measure of the number of people in a population who die
Megalopolis	a large urban corridor that encompasses several cities and their surrounding suburbs and exurbs
Internally Displaced Person	someone who fled his or her home while remaining inside the country’s borders
Gentrification	the entry of upper- and middle-class residents to city areas or communities that have been historically less affluent
Fertility Rate	a measure noting the actual number of children born
Environmental Sociology	the sociological subfield that addresses the relationship between humans and the environment
E-waste	the disposal of broken, obsolete, and worn-out electronics
Demographic Transition Theory	a theory that describes four stages of population growth, following patterns that connect birth and death rates with stages of industrial development
Concentric Zone Model	a model of human ecology that views cities as a series of circular rings or zones
Carrying Capacity	the amount of people that can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources
Asylum-seekers	those whose claim to refugee status have not been validated
Value-added Theory	a functionalist perspective theory that posits that several preconditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur
Social Movement Organization	a single social movement group
Social Movement	a purposeful organized group hoping to work toward a common social goal
Revolutionary Movements	movements that seek to completely change every aspect of society
Resistance Movements	those who seek to prevent or undo change to the social structure
Reform Movements	movements that seek to change something specific about the social structure
Prognostic Framing	social movements that state a clear solution and a means of implementation
New Social Movement Theory	a theory that attempts to explain the proliferation of postindustrial and postmodern movements that are difficult to understand using traditional social movement theories
Modernization	the process that increases the amount of specialization and differentiation of structure in societies
Frame Alignment Process	using bridging, amplification, extension, and transformation as an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to a movement
Expressive Crowds	crowds who share opportunities to express emotions
Diagnostic Framing	a social problem that is stated in a clear, easily understood manner
Crowd	a fairly large number of people who share close proximity
Collective Behavior	a noninstitutionalized activity in which several people voluntarily engage
Assembling Perspective	a theory that credits individuals in crowds as behaving as rational thinkers and views crowds as engaging in purposeful behavior and collective action
Acting Crowds	crowds of people who are focused on a specific action or goal
Alternative Movements	social movements that limit themselves to self-improvement changes in individuals
Casual Crowds	people who share close proximity without really interacting
Conventional Crowds	people who come together for a regularly scheduled event
Crowdsourcing	the process of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people
Emergent Norm Theory	a perspective that emphasizes the importance of social norms in crowd behavior
Flash Mob	a large group of people who gather together in a spontaneous activity that lasts a limited amount of time
Mass	a relatively large group with a common interest, even if they may not be in close proximity
Motivational Framing	a call to action
NGO	nongovernmental organizations working globally for numerous humanitarian and environmental causes
Public	an unorganized, relatively diffuse group of people who share ideas
Religious/Redemptive Movements	movements that work to promote inner change or spiritual growth in individuals
Resource Mobilization Theory	a theory that explains social movements’ success in terms of their ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals
Social Change	the change in a society created through social movements as well as through external factors like environmental shifts or technological innovations
Social Movement Industry	the collection of the social movement organizations that are striving toward similar goals
Social Movement Sector	the multiple social movement industries in a society, even if they have widely varying constituents and goals
Sustainable Development	development that occurs without depleting or damaging the natural environment
Cancer Cluster	a geographic area with high levels of cancer within its population
Climate Change	long-term shifts in temperature and climate due to human activity
Cornucopian Theory	a theory that asserts human ingenuity will rise to the challenge of providing adequate resources for a growing population
Demography	the study of population
Environmental Racism	the burdening of economically and socially disadvantaged communities with a disproportionate share of environmental hazards
Exurbs	communities that arise farther out than the suburbs and are typically populated by residents of high socioeconomic status
Fracking	hydraulic fracturing, a method used to recover gas and oil from shale by drilling down into the earth and directing a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and proprietary chemicals into the rock
Human Ecology	a functional perspective that looks at the relationship between people and their built and natural environment
Malthusian Theory	a theory asserting that population is controlled through positive checks (war, famine, disease) and preventive checks (measures to reduce fertility)
Metropolis	the area that includes a city and its suburbs and exurbs
NIMBY	“Not In My Back Yard,” the tendency of people to protest poor environmental practices when those practices will affect them directly
Population Composition	a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population based on fertility, mortality, and migration rates
Refugee	an individual who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster
Suburbs	the communities surrounding cities, typically close enough for a daily commute
Urbanization	the study of the social, political, and economic relationships of cities
Zero Population Growth	a theoretical goal in which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration
Commodification	the changing of something not generally thought of as a commodity into something that can be bought and sold in a marketplace
Demedicalization	the social process that normalizes “sick” behavior
Epidemiology	the study of the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases
Individual Mandate	a government rule that requires everyone to have insurance coverage or they will have to pay a penalty
Medical Sociology	the systematic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy
Medicalization of Deviance	the process that changes “bad” behavior into “sick” behavior
Morbidity	the incidence of disease
Personality Disorders	disorders that cause people to behave in ways that are seen as abnormal to society but seem normal to them
Public Healthcare	health insurance that is funded or provided by the government
Social Epidemiology	the study of the causes and distribution of diseases
Stereotype Interchangeability	stereotypes that don’t change and that get recycled for application to a new subordinate group
Stigmatization of Illness	illnesses that are discriminated against and whose sufferers are looked down upon or even shunned by society
Universal Healthcare	a system that guarantees healthcare coverage for everyone
Bartering	a process where people exchange one form of goods or services for another
Career Inheritance	a practice where children tend to enter the same or similar occupation as their parents
Depression	a sustained recession across several economic sectors
Global Assembly Lines	a practice where products are assembled over the course of several international transactions
Market Socialism	a subtype of socialism that adopts certain traits of capitalism, like allowing limited private ownership or consulting market demand
Mercantilism	an economic policy based on national policies of accumulating silver and gold by controlling markets with colonies and other countries through taxes and customs charges
Mutualism	a form of socialism under which individuals and cooperative groups exchange products with one another on the basis of mutually satisfactory contracts
Outsourcing	a practice where jobs are contracted to an outside source, often in another country
Recession	two or more consecutive quarters of economic decline
Structural Unemployment	a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the jobs that are available
Underemployment	a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than his or her education and experience qualifies him or her to perform
Absolute Monarchies	governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated power
Authority	power that people accept because it comes from a source that is perceived as legitimate
Constitutional Monarchies	national governments that recognize monarchs but require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution
Dictatorship	a form of government in which a single person (or a very small group) wields complete and absolute authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power, usually through economic or military might
Oligarchy	a form of government in which power is held by a small, elite group
Patrimonialism	a type of authority wherein military and administrative factions enforce the power of the master
Power	the ability to exercise one’s will over others
Rational-legal Authority	power that is legitimized by rules, regulations, and laws
Totalitarian Dictatorship	an extremely oppressive form of dictatorship in which most aspects of citizens’ lives are controlled by the leader
Credentialism	the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications
Cultural Transmission	the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture
Formal Education	the learning of academic facts and concepts
Head Start Program	a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status
Informal Education	education that involves learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society
Social Placement	the use of education to improve one’s social standing
Tracking	a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities
Animism	the religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world
Cults	religious groups that are small, secretive, and highly controlling of members and have a charismatic leader
Ecclesia	a religion that is considered the state religion
Liberation Theology	the use of a church to promote social change via the political arena
Monotheism	a religion based on belief in a single deity
Religion	a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant
Religious Experience	the conviction or sensation that one is connected to “the divine”
Sect	a small, new offshoot of a denomination
Ambilineal	a type of unilateral descent that follows either the father’s or the mother’s side exclusively
Bilateral Descent	the tracing of kinship through both parents’ ancestral lines
Extended Family	a household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins
Family Life Course	a sociological model of family that sees the progression of events as fluid rather than as occurring in strict stages
Family of Orientation	the family into which one is born
Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)	violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or sexual relationship
Marriage	a legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship who have an expectation of permanence about their relationship
Matrilocal Residence	a system in which it is customary for a husband to live with the his wife’s family
Nuclear Family	two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same household
Patrilocal Residence	a system in which it is customary for the wife to live with (or near) the her husband’s family
Polygamy	the state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time
Shaken-baby Syndrome	a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking or impacting an infant’s head
Activity Theory	a theory which suggests that for individuals to enjoy old age and feel satisfied, they must maintain activities and find a replacement for the statuses and associated roles they have left behind as they aged
Ageism	discrimination based on age
Centenarians	people 100 years old or older
Continuity Theory	a theory which states that the elderly make specific choices to maintain consistency in internal (personality structure, beliefs) and external structures (relationships), remaining active and involved throughout their elder years
Disengagement Theory	a theory which suggests that withdrawing from society and social relationships is a natural part of growing old
Exchange Theory	a theory which suggests that we experience an increased dependence as we age and must increasingly submit to the will of others, because we have fewer ways of compelling others to submit to us
Geriatrics	a medical specialty focusing on the elderly
Gerontology	a field of science that seeks to understand the process of aging and the challenges encountered as seniors grow older
Grief	a psychological, emotional, and social response to the feelings of loss that accompanies death or a similar event
Life Course	the period from birth to death, including a sequence of predictable life events
Modernization Theory	a theory which suggests that the primary cause of the elderly losing power and influence in society are the parallel forces of industrialization and modernization
Primary Aging	biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes
Selective Optimization with Compensation Theory	a theory based on the idea that successful personal development throughout the life course and subsequent mastery of the challenges associated with everyday life are based on the components of selection, optimization, and compensation
Social Gerontology	a specialized field of gerontology that examines the social (and sociological) aspects of aging
Supercentenarians	people 110 of age or older
Biological Determinism	the belief that men and women behave differently due to inherent sex differences related to their biology
DOMA	Defense of Marriage Act, a 1996 U.S. law explicitly limiting the definition of “marriage” to a union between one man and one woman and allowing each individual state to recognize or deny same-sex marriages performed in other states
Gender	a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female
Gender Identity	a person’s deeply held internal perception of his or her gender
Heterosexism	an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations
Queer Theory	an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies Western society’s rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions its appropriateness
Sexism	the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another
Sexuality	a person’s capacity for sexual feelings
Transgender	an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex
Assimilation	the process by which a minority individual or group takes on the characteristics of the dominant culture
Culture of Prejudice	the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture
Dominant Group	a group of people who have more power in a society than any of the subordinate groups
Expulsion	the act of a dominant group forcing a subordinate group to leave a certain area or even the country
Institutional Racism	racism embedded in social institutions
Minority Group	any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and unequal treatment
Pluralism	the ideal of the United States as a “salad bowl:” a mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the “flavor” of the whole
Racial Profiling	the use by law enforcement of race alone to determine whether to stop and detain someone
Racism	a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others
Scapegoat Theory	a theory that suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group
Segregation	the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions
Stereotypes	oversimplified ideas about groups of people
White Privilege	the benefits people receive simply by being part of the dominant group
Capital Flight	the movement (flight) of capital from one nation to another, via jobs and resources
Core Nations	dominant capitalist countries
Debt Bondage	the act of people pledging themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage, and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom
Dependency Theory	a theory which states that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations
Fourth World	a term that describes stigmatized minority groups who have no voice or representation on the world stage
Global Feminization of Poverty	a pattern that occurs when women bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty
Global Stratification	the unequal distribution of resources between countries
Modernization Theory	a theory that low-income countries can improve their global economic standing by industrialization of infrastructure and a shift in cultural attitudes towards work
Relative Poverty	the state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country
Semi-peripheral Nations	in-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and an expanding middle class marketplace
Third World	a term from the Cold War era that refers to poor, unindustrialized countries
Caste System	a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives
Class System	social standing based on social factors and individual accomplishments
Conspicuous Consumption	the act of buying and using products to make a statement about social standing
Downward Mobility	a lowering of one’s social class
Exogamous Unions	unions of spouses from different social categories
Income	the money a person earns from work or investments
Intragenerational Mobility	a difference in social class between different members of the same generation
Primogeniture	a law stating that all property passes to the firstborn son
Social Stratification	a socioeconomic system that divides society’s members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige
Status Consistency	the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual’s rank across social categories like income, education, and occupation
Upward Mobility	an increase—or upward shift—in social class
Cyberfeminism	the application to and promotion of feminism online
Digital Divide	the uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines
Evolutionary Model of Technological Change	a breakthrough in one form of technology that leads to a number of variations, from which a prototype emerges, followed by a period of slight adjustments to the technology, interrupted by a breakthrough
Knowledge Gap	the gap in information that builds as groups grow up without access to technology
Media Consolidation	a process by which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets
Neo-Luddites	those who see technology as a symbol of the coldness of modern life
New Media	all interactive forms of information exchange
Panoptic Surveillance	a form of constant monitoring in which the observation posts are decentralized and the observed is never communicated with directly
Plant Patents	patents that recognize the discovery of new plant types that can be asexually reproduced
Technological Globalization	the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology
Technophiles	those who see technology as symbolizing the potential for a brighter future
Aggregate	a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don’t interact or share a sense of identity
Bureaucracies	formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality.
Clear Division of Labor	the fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform
Conformity	the extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms
Dyad	a two-member group
Expressive Function	a group function that serves an emotional need
Formal Organizations	large, impersonal organizations
Hierarchy of Authority	a clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy
In-group	a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of his identity
Conflict Theory	a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance
Corporate Crime	crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment
Court	a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law
Criminal Justice System	an organization that exists to enforce a legal code
Deviance	a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms
Formal Sanctions	sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced
Informal Sanctions	sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions
Legal Codes	codes that maintain formal social control through laws
Negative Sanctions	punishments for violating norms
Police	a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level
Power Elite	a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources
Sanctions	the means of enforcing rules
Self-report Study	a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews
Social Disorganization Theory	a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control
Strain Theory	a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals
Victimless Crime	activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them
Instrumental Leader	a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks
Laissez-faire Leader	a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions
Leadership Style	the style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members
Meritocracy	a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit—proven and documented skills
Out-group	a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with
Reference Groups	groups to which an individual compares herself
Total Institution	an organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs
Utilitarian Organizations	organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need
Degradation Ceremony	the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identities and are given new ones
Hidden Curriculum	the informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms
Nature	the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development
Peer Group	a group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests
Self	a person’s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction
Achieved Status	the status a person chooses, such as a level of education or income
Alienation	an individual’s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self
Ascribed Status	the status outside of an individual’s control, such as sex or race
Capitalism	a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government
Collective Conscience	the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society
Feudal Societies	societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection
Horticultural Societies	societies based around the cultivation of plants
Industrial Societies	societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labor to create material goods
Institutionalization	the act of implanting a convention or norm into society
Looking-glass Self	our reflection of how we think we appear to others
Organic Solidarity	a type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences
Proletariat	the laborers in a society
Role Conflict	a situation when one or more of an individual’s roles clash
Role Strain	stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role
Roles	patterns of behavior that are representative of a person’s social status
Social Integration	how strongly a person is connected to his or her social group
Status	the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to his or her rank and role in society
Beliefs	tenets or convictions that people hold to be true
Cultural Imperialism	the deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture
Cultural Universals	patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies
Culture Lag	the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture’s acceptance of it
Diffusion	the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another
Ethnocentrism	the practice of evaluating another culture according to the standards of one’s own culture
Formal Norms	established, written rules
High Culture	the cultural patterns of a society’s elite
Informal Norms	casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to
Inventions	a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms
Material Culture	the objects or belongings of a group of people
Nonmaterial Culture	the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society
Popular Culture	mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population
Sanctions	a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors
Social Control	a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
Subcultures	groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society
Values	a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society
Case Study	in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual
Content Analysis	applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand
Dependent Variables	a variable changed by other variables
Ethnography	observing a complete social setting and all that it entails
Field Research	gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey
Hypothesis	a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables
Interpretive Framework	a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing
Literature Review	a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research
Nonreactive Research	using secondary data, does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors
Participant Observation	when a researcher immerses herself in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an “insider” perspective
Primary Data	data that are collected directly from firsthand experience
Quantitative Data	represent research collected in numerical form that can be counted
Reliability	a measure of a study’s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced
Scientific Method	an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions
Surveys	collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire
Value Neutrality	a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results