1.9: Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theorists focusing on marital quality and stability have posited that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of mate selection and of remaining in a marriage. We look to this theory to explain why an individual might remain in a dissatisfied marriage. Barriers to change and attractiveness of alternatives are the main elements of social exchange theory when used to guide the investigation of divorce. \({ }^{13}\)

There are several terms which are central to social exchange theory that must be defined prior to a discussion of the theory. Outcomes are those rewards or costs which are received or incurred by actors from each other in an exchange relationship. Outcomes can be positive (rewards) or negative (costs) and social exchange theory makes no assumption about whether an individual will view a particular outcome as positive or negative (e.g., some individuals view divorce as positive while others view it as a negative outcome). The theory only assumes that behavior is consistent with what individual's value in their lives. Rewards may be physical, social, or psychological. Costs can be viewed as negative or as forgone rewards. Resources are possessions or behavioral capabilities (human capital) which have value to others and to oneself (e.g., a husband's job and income have value to his wife). When one resource outweighs another resource then it may become a barrier (e.g., the wife's income may be a resource that enables her to leave the marriage, but her husband's income may be so great that it may be a barrier to leaving since she won't be able to enjoy the life to which she has become accustomed without his income). \({ }^{14}\) Barriers are the costs of making a choice. \({ }^{15}\) Several studies find when barriers are many and alternatives are few individuals may remain in dissatisfied marriages. \({ }^{16}\)

Alternatives are the variety of possible exchange relations available to individuals. An individual's alternatives are those opportunities which produce outcomes which have value to the individual. These outcomes may be exchange relationships with other individuals. In the study of divorce, alternatives are to remain married or to divorce. There are costs and rewards associated with alternatives (e.g., the psychological cost of staying in a poor quality marriage, the cost of paying bills on one income associated with divorce) and social exchange theory implies that individuals attempt to weigh rewards and costs when making decisions about alternatives. \({ }^{17}\)

Individuals are dependent on each other in an exchange relationship and the outcomes which are valued by the individuals are contingent on the exchanges made with the other. Exchanges can be onesided (asymmetrical) or reciprocal. \({ }^{18}\) An individual may give to another without receiving anything in return or may receive without giving. Individuals tend to influence each other by considering their partner's previous choices when making their own choices. Not only is a memory of past costs and rewards used in determining present exchanges, a forecast of future costs and rewards is considered also. \({ }^{19}\) When an exchange relationship is imbalanced, the individual who is less dependent will have the most power, or the power advantage. \({ }^{20}\) For instance, a woman who has no college education and lacks a stable job that provides her with a good income is more dependent on her husband, who earns the household income, than he is on her.

Exchange relations take place over time. They are not single transactions. For social exchange relationships to form and be ongoing, the value of the exchange to each of the individuals in the relationship must be greater than the perceived value of the potential alternatives. For example, as long as the value of the marital relationship is perceived to be greater than the perceived value of divorce, the individuals will remain in the marital relationship. However, in some cases individuals will remain in antagonistic relationships because the alternatives are perceived as even less desirable than the marital relationship (e.g., women in unsatisfying relationships with no education, no personal income, and many children to support) or because there is threat of punishment from the spouse (e.g., women in abusive relationships whose spouses threaten harm to them or their children if they leave). Social exchange theory acknowledges individuals do not always act rationally, but assumes those departures from rational behavior will follow predictable patterns. \({ }^{21}\) This theory assumes that humans act rationally when deciding on an exchange; however, this is not always true. \({ }^{22}\)

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Footnotes

13. Albrecht, Bahr, \& Goodman. (1983); Heaton \& Albrecht. (1991)
14. Klein \& White. (1996); Molm \& Cook. (1995)
15. Klein \& White. (1996)
16. Levenger. (1976); Thibaut \& Kelly. (1959); White \& Booth. (1991)
17. Klein \& White. (1996); Molm \& Cook. (1995); Nye. (1982)
18. Lewis \& Spanier. (1979); Molm \& Cook. (1995)
19. Lewis \& Spanier. (1979)
20. Molm \& Cook. (1995)
21. Klein \& White. (1996); Molm \& Cook (1995)
22. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542...\%20Theory.htm