2.3: Five Canons of Rhetoric

Learning Objectives

1. Define and describe the purpose and key components of each of the Five Canons of Rhetoric.
2. Explain the enduring relevance of the Five Canons as foundational guidelines for effective and ethical public speaking in contemporary contexts.

What are the Five Canons?

Cicero, the renowned Roman philosopher, senator, consul, and one of history's greatest orators, outlined five essential principles for creating and delivering powerful messages. These principles, known as the Five Canons of Rhetoric, are tried-and-true guidelines that remain highly relevant for anyone looking to communicate effectively today. They are: Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memory, and Delivery. In this chapter we will explore each one of these principles and their application to contemporary public speaking, specifically in persuasive contexts.

Invention

Invention is the crucial first step in crafting any message. It's the process of finding, exploring, and developing all the materials you might want to include to make your communication as effective as possible. Cicero himself defined it as "the discovery of valid or seemingly valid arguments to render one's cause probable," which essentially means finding the very best ways to persuade your audience. This stage is often the most time-consuming because it requires deep thought. You need to have a clear purpose, truly understand your subject, and, most importantly, know your audience inside and out. This understanding will guide you in making many important choices:

• Crafting Your Argument: How can you best frame your ideas to be most persuasive to this specific audience? This involves identifying what arguments will resonate with them, what they care about, and what might move them.
• Gathering Evidence: What types of support will work best? You'll want to collect a variety of evidence, such as facts, statistics, relevant laws, expert opinions, anecdotes, or personal stories. Having diverse evidence is key, as different audiences are convinced by different things. Knowing your listeners helps you select the most credible and compelling proofs.
• Considering Timing (Kairos): Be mindful of the context and time limitations of your speech. The right message delivered at the wrong moment or in a rushed way can lose its impact. This also includes thinking about the opportune moment to present your message for maximum effect.

Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address is a perfect illustration of how timing impacts invention. On that famous day in 1863, the main speaker, Edward Everett, delivered a two-hour address. Lincoln followed with a speech lasting less than five minutes. While the audience at the time might not have fully grasped its genius, Everett famously wrote to Lincoln, "I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes." Today, Lincoln's brief words are universally remembered, while Everett's lengthy oration is forgotten. This shows that the invention process isn't just about what you say, but when and how concisely you say it.

Examples of Invention \(\PageIndex{1}\)

• A political candidate brainstorms the most important points to address in an upcoming debate, considering what will resonate with voters.
• Before writing an essay, a student free-writes ideas to explore different angles and find the strongest topic.
• A defense attorney prepares for a trial by listing all possible ways to counter the charges against their client, gathering facts and arguments.

Arrangement

Arrangement is the process of organizing your message in the most effective way for your audience. Just as a well-built house has a foundation, walls, and a roof, a persuasive speech needs a clear structure to be understood and impactful. Every effective speech should have three essential parts:

• An Introduction: To grab attention and set the stage.
• A Body: Where you present your main points and evidence.
• A Conclusion: To summarize and leave a lasting impression.

But arrangement goes beyond these basic parts. It also involves carefully deciding the order of your main points, how you group your supporting subpoints, and where you place specific details to achieve the greatest effect on your listeners.

Most Common Persuasive Organizational Speech Structures \(\PageIndex{2}\)

For persuasive speeches in particular, there are several powerful organizational patterns you should consider during the arrangement stage:

• Monroe's Motivated Sequence: This five-step pattern is designed to move an audience to action.
  1. Attention: Grab the audience's interest.
  2. Need: Show them a problem that needs to be solved.
  3. Satisfaction: Present your solution to the problem.
  4. Visualization: Help them imagine the benefits of your solution or the negative consequences of not adopting it.
  5. Action: Tell them exactly what they need to do.
• Problem-Solution: A straightforward approach where you first describe a significant problem and then offer your proposed solution.
• Problem-Cause-Solution: This pattern digs deeper by not only identifying a problem and offering a solution but also thoroughly explaining the underlying causes of the problem.
• Comparative Advantages: If your audience already agrees there's a problem, this structure focuses on showing why your proposed solution is better than others. You present several solutions and highlight the unique benefits (advantages) of your preferred one.

Audience analysis is just as vital in arrangement as it is in invention. The way you structure your message should always consider who you're speaking to. For instance, a speaker might start with a compelling story or a surprising statistic to immediately capture their audience's attention and connect emotionally, rather than immediately diving into complex facts.

Many new speakers think they can skip the arrangement stage and just "wing it" when they deliver their speech. This is a common mistake! Arrangement is crucial. Spending time thoughtfully organizing your material provides a clear roadmap for what you will say and ensures your argument flows logically. This allows your audience to easily follow along and grasp your message, making your speech far more persuasive.

Example of Arrangement \(\PageIndex{3}\)

1. Before giving a presentation, a student creates an outline to determine the most logical sequence for their main ideas and supporting details.
2. A defense attorney preparing for a major trial strategically decides the order in which to present evidence and arguments, aiming to build a compelling narrative for the jury.
3. A student preparing a presentation for a science fair carefully organizes their information and visuals on a poster board to lead viewers through their experiment's steps and findings clearly.

Style

Style is the stage where you make deliberate choices about the language you use in your speech, including specific word choice, sentence structures, and figures of speech. These choices are crucial because they shape the tone and overall impression of your message. It's vital that your chosen style perfectly fits the occasion and your audience.

In their article, Classic Rhetoric 101-The Five Canons of Rhetoric Brett and Kate McKay use an analogy to explain the importance of style in speech. They talk about two identical gifts, one wrapped in a beautiful box with a beautiful bow on top and the other wrapped in a crushed box and newspaper. Which one would you pick? While the gifts were identical, most people would pick the first one. They conclude with the wise lesson: " It doesn’t matter how great your message is, if you don’t wrap it up with style, people will probably ignore it in favor of a message that’s packaged nicely." Some important points when considering the "packaging" include:

• Speaking correctly (think grammar and syntax)
• Enunciating with clarity
• Clear and simple writing, think of explaining complex ideas in such a way that an 8th grader can understand.
• Using figures of speech or colorful language to make your speech interesting to listen to.

Example of Style\(\PageIndex{4}\)

Churchill's famous speech "We Shall Find on the Beaches" is due to its use of the figure of speech anaphora, repeating a keyword or phrase for impact:

"Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and famous States have fallen or may fall into the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and if, which I do not for a moment believe, this island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God’s good time, the new world, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old."

Memory

In ancient Greece and Rome, it was a strong expectation for orators to memorize their entire speeches and deliver them without notes. This was seen as a sign of dedication, intellect, and respect for the audience. Even today, speakers who present their messages from memory are often perceived as more credible, confident, and eloquent than those who rely heavily on notes. Think about the speakers you've personally heard: who seemed more engaging? Those who hid behind their notes, or those who spoke "from the heart" and made eye contact, connecting visually with natural body language?

While strict, word-for-word memorization might be less common or even discouraged in some modern contexts (to avoid sounding stiff or "scripted"), the canon of Memory is still incredibly important. It's not just about rote memorization; it's about committing your ideas to heart and making your speech memorable for your audience. Here's how to effectively apply the canon of Memory in your speech preparation:

• Draw on Your Own Knowledge: Begin by tapping into what you already know about your subject. This allows you to speak more naturally and confidently, establishing context and finding common ground with your audience without needing to look at notes.
• Craft a Memorable Message: Structure your speech in a way that helps your audience remember your key points. This might involve using vivid stories, incorporating humor, creating clear and easily digestible main points (like organizing into "three main reasons"), or using rhetorical devices that stick in the mind.
• Internalize Your Speech (or Key Points): Whether you memorize the entire speech or just your major points, the act of internalizing your content allows you to deliver it more fluidly. This frees you up to focus on making good eye contact, using natural gestures, and genuinely connecting with your audience—all crucial elements of the next canon, Delivery.

Examples of Memory \(\PageIndex{5}\)

1. A political candidate thoroughly rehearses their speech so they can make direct eye contact with the audience and use effective body language, rather than relying on a teleprompter or script.
2. A student preparing for an academic conference presentation memorizes their major arguments and supporting evidence, allowing them to speak confidently and engage with the audience without reading directly from a paper.
3. A defense attorney internalizes the key points of her closing argument, enabling her to interact dynamically with the jurors and deliver a powerful, unhindered appeal.

Delivery

Delivery is the final canon and focuses on how you present your message to your audience. This involves all your nonverbal cues, which can either emphasize your message and make it powerful, or make it seem bland and forgettable. Your delivery includes your eye contact, gestures, posture, body movement, vocal volume, tone of voice, speech rate, clarity of articulation, and even your strategic use of pauses.

As Cicero himself noted, delivery holds "the sole and supreme power in oratory." Without it, even the most brilliant speaker can fail to impress, while a moderately skilled individual can shine. A great speech can be lost due to poor delivery, which can significantly harm a speaker's credibility (ethos). Historical figures like the famous Greek speaker Demosthenes understood the importance of delivery. He reportedly practiced speaking with pebbles in his mouth to improve diction, ran to strengthen his voice, and delivered speeches over the roar of waves to build volume and projection.

To make your delivery effective, intentionally consider these aspects:

• Vocal Variety: Vary your volume, tone of voice, and speech rate to match the emotions and emphasis you're trying to convey.
• Strategic Pauses: Use silence to highlight key points, allow the audience to process information, or build anticipation.
• Engaging Eye Contact: Connect with your audience by making appropriate and consistent eye contact across the room.
• Purposeful Body Language: Be mindful of your posture, movement, and hand gestures. Use them to reinforce your message and show confidence, rather than distract.
• Practice in Context: Rehearse your speech in a setting similar to your actual presentation. This helps you make intentional choices about how you'll stand, move, and use gestures, ensuring a natural and impactful delivery.
• Appropriate Attire: Consider how your clothing affects your professional image and the audience's perception of your credibility for the specific occasion.

Examples of Delivery \(\PageIndex{}\6)

1. As she delivers her speech, a political candidate speaks with energy and conviction, using a strong voice and deliberate hand gestures to emphasize her points.
2. At an academic conference, a student moves away from the podium and walks around the room as he delivers his paper, creating a more dynamic and engaging presentation.
3. During her closing argument, a defense attorney makes direct eye contact with each juror, using a calm yet firm tone to convey sincerity and conviction.

Exercises

1. Of Cicero's Five Canons (Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memory, Delivery), which do you feel you naturally excel at, and which presents the biggest challenge for you? How might intentionally focusing on improving your weaker canon change your approach to communication?
2. The chapter discusses how the Canon of Memory has evolved significantly in modern times due to teleprompters and notes. How do you see the other four canons (Invention, Arrangement, Style, Delivery) being adapted or utilized differently in today's digital age, especially with the rise of social media, online video content, or virtual presentations? Give specific examples for at least two canons.
3. Canon Deconstruction: Choose a a TED Talk and identify how the speaker utilized each one of the canons providing specific examples from the talk.

Image References

Gardner, A., photographer. (1865) Abraham Lincoln, three-quarter length portrait, seated and holding his spectacles and a pencil. United States, 1865. [Feb. 5] [Photograph] Retrieved from the Library of Congress.

Liam Clarkson-Holborn. Cicero. CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

United Nations Information Office, New York, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Winston Churchill, 1942.

Adapted from:

McKay, B., & McKay, K. (2011, January 26). Classical rhetoric 101: The five canons of rhetoric: Invention. The Art of Manliness.