5.1: Understanding Motivational Appeals

Learning Objectives

1. Define motivational appeals and explain their significance in influencing human decision-making and behavior.
2. Differentiate between internal and external motivation, as well as positive and negative motivation, providing examples of each in persuasive contexts.
3. Explain the relevance of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to persuasive communication, identifying which levels are most frequently targeted by persuaders.

Emotions and Decision Making

We often pride ourselves on rationality, but human decisions are deeply influenced by emotion. The iconic ASPCA commercial, featuring Sarah McLachlan's "Angel" and images of neglected animals, exemplifies this, raising $30 million in less than two years (Strom). With millions of YouTube views, it powerfully demonstrates that emotional appeals are highly effective.

Although we often fancy ourselves to be rational creatures, and Western philosophical tradition tells us over and over that logic and reasoning are the gold-standard of decision making, the reality is that human brains are both emotional and logical, and research suggests that a lot of our decision making is based upon emotion. Research by Gallup indicates that "70% of decisions are based on emotion, including brand preference" (Pendell). Emotion affects more than brand preference or consumer behavior; "emotions constitute potent, pervasive, predictable, sometimes harmful and sometimes beneficial drivers of decision making" (Lerner et al.).

People need to feel safe, we need sustenance and affection, we need agency, and we need acceptance, among other things. We all have needs, and we are highly motivated to meet those needs. This brings us to motivational appeals. Gass and Seiter define motivational appeals as "external inducements, often of an emotional nature, that are designed to increase an individual's drive to undertake some course of action" (328). "External inducements" refer to things other than the persuasive message itself which seek to alter peoples' emotions, feelings, and moods.

First, we will distinguish between internal and external motivation as well as positive and negative motivation. We will then examine some common motivational appeals. Lastly, we will explore Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and its implications for persuasion.

Internal vs. External Motivation

Internal motivation originates from within, driven by feelings like contentment, enjoyment, pride, accomplishment, or responsibility. In contrast, external motivation stems from outside sources, such as tangible rewards, money, recognition, gifts, or praise.

While some argue external rewards are more realistic (e.g., paychecks for work, loyalty programs, resume-building volunteerism), intrinsic motivation—the desire to complete a task simply because it's interesting or aligns with personal passions—is often considered more effective for long-term behavior change. External motivation can lead to behavior cessation once the reward is removed.

Eric Reiss, a professor at Ohio State University, believes that "taking many diverse human needs and motivations, putting them into just two categories [internal and external], and then saying one type of motivation is better than another" is inherently flawed (qtd. in Grabmeier). Reiss believes that different people can be motivated in different ways and there is no right or wrong way to motivate. "Individuals differ enormously in what makes them happy - for some, competition, winning, and wealth are the greatest sources of happiness, but for others, feeling competent or socializing may be more satisfying. The point is that you can't say some motivations, like money (or other tangible rewards), are inherently inferior...Proponents of intrinsic motivation are also making value judgments by saying some types of motivation are better than others" (Grabmeier).

Positive vs. Negative Motivation

The "carrot and stick" analogy illustrates positive and negative motivation. Positive motivation (the carrot) is driven by the desire to gain something desirable. These can be external (e.g., bonus, promotion, social inclusion) or internal (e.g., feeling of accomplishment, satisfaction, general well-being).

Negative motivation (the stick) is driven by the desire to avoid or remove something unpleasant. Again, this can be external (e.g., physical punishment, lower grade, fine, exclusion) or internal (e.g., feelings of failure, remorse, regret). We naturally tend to avoid negative outcomes.

This can be understood through "Motivation Math":

• Addition of a positive = Positive (e.g., financial rewards, praise, feeling of accomplishment)
• Subtraction of a negative = Positive (e.g., removal of a chore, avoiding a fine, avoiding unpleasant feelings)
• Addition of a negative = Negative (e.g., paying a fine, receiving punishment)
• Subtraction of a positive = Negative (e.g., losing privileges, demotion)

Effective persuaders employ strategies like gain-framed messages (positive motivational math, focusing on attaining desirable outcomes) or loss-framed messages (negative motivational math, focusing on acquiring undesirable outcomes or losing desirable ones) to encourage action. Emotionally, persuaders gravitate towards eliciting positive feelings (humor, hope, warmth) and avoiding negative ones (fear, pity, guilt). We will discuss emotional appeals later in this chapter.

Appeals to Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs outlines several layers of human needs: physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization (Maslow, pp. 372-382). As these needs are fundamental, tapping into them is a common persuasive strategy, often amplified by combining them with positive or negative motivation.

Physiological needs, at the base of the hierarchy, are essential for survival (food, air, water). Persuaders generally do not appeal to these, as it would be unethical to deny or promise them for persuasive gain. Similarly, ethically appealing to self-actualization needs—our intrinsic drive to achieve highest potential through individual pursuits like higher education, art, or spirituality—is difficult, as these are often considered private.

Persuaders are most successful in focusing on safety, social, and self-esteem needs:

Safety needs involve preserving personal security and that of loved ones. Appeals can be positively framed by presenting information that increases security, or negatively framed by highlighting risks if the message isn't followed (e.g., the insurance industry's use of fear appeals). Ethical consideration is key in such appeals.

Exercises

1. The chapter discusses the potent influence of emotional and motivational appeals. When considering your own role as a persuader, what is the ethical line between effectively appealing to an audience's needs and emotions, and engaging in manipulation? Can you think of a specific example from advertising or public discourse where a motivational appeal, even if effective, might cross into unethical territory, and explain why?
2. Reflect on a time you were strongly persuaded to do something or believe something (e.g., buy a product, adopt a new habit, support a particular cause). Looking back at that experience through the lens of this chapter, which of Maslow's needs (physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, or self-actualization) do you think the persuader primarily appealed to in you? Was the appeal framed more positively (seeking a gain) or negatively (avoiding a loss)? How did understanding your own needs in that moment contribute to your decision?
3. Crafting a Targeted Motivational Message:

• Choose one of the following persuasive goals:
  • Convince friends to try a new, healthy recipe you enjoy.
  • Encourage fellow students to attend an upcoming campus event.
  • Persuade a family member to adopt a new, energy-saving habit at home.
• Now, draft a short (3-5 sentences) persuasive message for your chosen goal that specifically incorporates the following:
  • An appeal to one specific level of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (e.g., Safety, Social, or Self-Esteem).
  • A primary focus on either positive motivation (what they will gain) or negative motivation (what they will avoid/lose).
• Explain your choices: Briefly describe why you chose that particular need and motivational frame for your target audience and how you believe it will increase their drive to undertake the course of action you're suggesting.

References

Gass, Robert H. and John S. Seiter. Persuasion: Social Influence and Compliance-Gaining. (7th ed.). Routledge, 2022.

Grabmeier, Jeff. "Intrinsic Motivation Doesn't Exist, Researcher Says." Ohio State News. 8 May 2005. news.osu.edu/intrinsic-motivation-doesnt-exist-researcher-says/.

Lerner, Jennifer S., et al. "Emotion and Decision Making. Annual Review of Psychology. vol. 66, no. 1, 2015, pp. 799-823, doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115043.

Maslow, Abraham. “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological Review, Vol. 50, 1943, pp. 370-396. doi.org/10.1037/h0054346.

Pendell, Ryan. "Customer Brand Preference and Decisions: Gallup's 70/30 Principle." Gallup. 30 Sept. 2022. www.gallup.com/workplace/398954/customer-brand-preference-decisions-gallup-principle.aspx.

Strom, Stephanie. "Ad Featuring Singer Proves Bonanza for the A.S.P.C.A." New York Times, 25 Dec. 2008. www.nytimes.com/2008/12/26/us/26charity.html.

Image Attributions

Dog. Image courtesy of Pixabay and is published under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication license

"Maslow" courtesy of University of Minnesota Libraries is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

Adapted from:

LibreTexts. (n.d.). 06: Motivational Appeals. In Persuasion, Critical Thinking, and Writing. Social Sci LibreTexts.