4.2: Identity Development

By now, you probably have some awareness of the cultural groups you belong to - maybe you identify as Black, Asian American, Latino, white, multiracial, or any other background.  You might also think of yourself in terms of gender, class, religion, or ability.  For example, someone might say, “I’m a middle-class, college-educated, queer Latina woman.”  These identities shape how we see ourselves and how others see us.

Think back:  when did you first realize your racial or ethnic identity mattered?  Was it during childhood, when someone made a comment about your skin color?  Was it as a teenager when you noticed who was represented in the media - or who wasn’t represented?  Or maybe it’s happening now, as you read this chapter.  Most people’s understanding of their identity changes over time, especially as they encounter new experiences, challenges, or communities (Cross & Cross, 2008; Phinney, 1990).

To help explain how this growth happens, scholars have created models that outline stages of racial identity development - similar to how Piaget described stages of childhood learning.  These models aren’t perfect or one-size-fits-all, but they offer a useful way to think about how people move from confusion or denial to pride and acceptance (Jernigan, Green, & Helms, 2017).  Think of a model like a toy car:  it’s not the real thing, but it gives you a basic idea of how a car works.  In the same way, identity models give us a general picture of how people often experience racial awareness.  But real life is more complicated.  For example, someone who is biracial might feel pulled between two cultures, while someone who is white might not think much about race until they’re confronted with issues of privilege or inequality (Kwan, 2001).

In the next section, we will look at four identity development models:

• Nondominant identity development (e.g., people of color navigating racism)

• Dominant identity development (e.g., white individuals becoming aware of privilege)

• Bi- or multiracial identity development (e.g., people with mixed heritage exploring belonging)

Keep in mind, each person has multiple identities - such as race, gender, class, religion, ability, and sexual orientation - that overlap and shape how they experience the world.  This concept is known as intersectionality, a term introduced by Kimberle Crenshaw to explain how different aspects of identity combine to create unique experiences of privilege and discrimination.  For instance, someone who is an immigrant and part of the LGBTQ+ community may face challenges related to both cultural background and sexual orientation, while another person might benefit from social advantages tied to race, gender, or economic status.  These overlapping identities influence how individuals understand themselves and how they are treated by society.  No single model can fully explain everyone’s experiences, but recognizing intersectionality helps us appreciate the complexity of identity and the ways social systems shape our lives.  

Nondominant Identity Development

There are four stages of nondominant identity development (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). The first stage is unexamined identity, which is characterized by a lack of awareness of or lack of interest in one’s identity. For example, a young woman who will later identify as a lesbian may not yet realize that a nondominant sexual orientation is part of her identity.  Similarly, a Latino teenager might not think much about his/her cultural heritage until they are asked to participate in a school event for Hispanic Heritage Month.  They may wonder why it matters to feel disconnected from the traditions being celebrated. When someone begins to distance themselves from their own cultural identity and instead adopts the norms of a dominant group, they may enter the next stage, known as conformity.

In the conformity stage, an individual internalizes or adopts the values and norms of the dominant group, often in an effort not to be perceived as different. Individuals may attempt to assimilate into the dominant culture by changing their appearance, their mannerisms, the way they talk, or even their name. Moises, a Chicano man interviewed in a research project about identities, narrated how he changed his “Mexican sounding” name to Moses, which was easier for his middle-school classmates and teachers to say (Jones Jr., 2009). He also identified as white instead of Mexican American or Chicano because he saw how his teachers treated the other kids with “brown skin.” Additionally, some gay or lesbian people in this stage of identity development may try to “act straight.” In either case, some people move to the next stage, resistance and separation, when they realize that despite their efforts they are still perceived as different by and not included in the dominant group.

In the resistance and separation stage, an individual with a nondominant identity may shift away from the conformity of the previous stage to engage in actions that challenge the dominant identity group. Individuals in this stage may also actively try to separate themselves from the dominant group, interacting only with those who share their nondominant identity. For example, there has been a Deaf culture movement in the United States for decades. This movement includes people who are hearing impaired and believe that their use of a specific language, American Sign Language (ASL), and other cultural practices constitutes a unique culture, which they symbolize by capitalizing the D in Deaf (Allen, 2011).

 

Figure 4.1.2: Many hearing-impaired people in the United States use American Sign Language (ASL), which is recognized as an official language (Quinn Dombrowski – ASL interpreter – CC BY-SA 2.0.).

While this is not a separatist movement, a person who is hearing impaired may find refuge in such a group after experiencing discrimination from hearing people. Staying in this stage may mean they haven’t yet thought critically about the values they’ve adopted.

The integration stage marks a period where individuals with a nondominant identity have achieved a balance between embracing their own identities and valuing other dominant and nondominant identities. Although there may still be residual anger from the discrimination and prejudice they have faced, they may direct this energy into positive outlets such as working to end discrimination for their own or other groups. Moises, the Chicano man mentioned earlier, now works to support the Chicano community in his city and also has actively supported gay rights and women’s rights.

Diagram 4.1.1:  Nondominant Identity Development adapted from Martin & Nakayama (2010).

 

Dominant Identity Development

Dominant identity development consists of five stages (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). The unexamined stage of dominant identity formation is similar to nondominant in that individuals in this stage do not think about their or others’ identities. Although they may be aware of differences—for example, between races and genders—they either don’t realize there is a hierarchy that treats some people differently than others or they don’t think the hierarchy applies to them. For example, a white person may take notice that a person of color was elected to a prominent office. However, he or she may not see the underlying reason that it is noticeable —namely, that the overwhelming majority of our country’s leaders are white. People with nondominant identities often become aware of their cultural positioning early on because they face discrimination or bias.  In contrast, those with dominant identities may remain unaware of their social advantages and stay in the unexamined stage much longer.

In the acceptance stage, a person with a dominant identity passively or actively accepts that some people are treated differently than others but doesn’t do anything internally or externally to address it. In the passive acceptance stage, we must be cautious not to blame individuals with dominant identities for internalizing racist, sexist, or heterosexist “norms.” The socializing institutions we discussed earlier (family, peers, media, religion, and education) often make oppression seem normal and natural. For example, people who struggle to see that they are in this stage say things like “I know that racism exists, but my parents taught me to be a good person and see everyone as equal.” While this is admirable, seeing everyone as equal doesn’t make it so. And people who insist that we are all equal may claim that minorities are exaggerating their circumstances or “whining” and just need to “work harder” or “get over it.” The person making these statements acknowledges difference but doesn’t see their privilege or the institutional perpetuation of various “-isms.” Although I’ve encountered many more people in the passive state of acceptance than the active state, some may progress to an active state where they acknowledge inequality and are proud to be in the “superior” group. In either case, many people never progress from this stage. If they do, it’s usually because of repeated encounters with individuals or situations that challenge their acceptance of the status quo, such as befriending someone from a nondominant group or taking a course related to culture.

The resistance stage of dominant identity formation is a major change from the previous in that an individual acknowledges the unearned advantages they are given and feels guilt or shame about it. Having taught about various types of privilege for years, I’ve encountered many students who want to return their privilege or disown it. These individuals may begin to disassociate with their own dominant group because they feel like a curtain has been opened and their awareness of the inequality makes it difficult for them to interact with others in their dominant group. But it’s important to acknowledge that becoming aware of your white privilege, for instance, doesn’t mean that every person of color is going to want to accept you as an ally, so retreating to them may not be the most productive move. While moving to this step is a marked improvement in regards to becoming a more aware and socially just person, getting stuck in the resistance stage isn’t productive, because people are often retreating rather than trying to address injustice. For some, deciding to share what they’ve learned with others who share their dominant identity moves them to the next stage.

People in the redefinition stage revise negative views of their identity held in the previous stage and begin to acknowledge their privilege and try to use the power they are granted to work for social justice. They realize that they can claim their dominant identity as heterosexual, able-bodied, male, white, and so on, and perform their identity in ways that counter norms. A male participant in a research project on identity said the following about redefining his male identity:

I don’t want to assert my maleness the same way that maleness is asserted all around us all the time. I don’t want to contribute to sexism. So I have to be conscious of that. There’s that guilt. But then, I try to utilize my maleness in positive ways, like when I’m talking to other men about male privilege (Jones, Jr., 2009).

The final stage of dominant identity formation is integration. This stage is reached when redefinition is complete and people can integrate their dominant identity into all aspects of their life, finding opportunities to educate others about privilege while also being a responsive ally to people in nondominant identities. As an example, some heterosexual people who find out a friend or family member is gay or lesbian may have to confront their dominant heterosexual identity for the first time, which may lead them through these various stages. As a sign of integration, some may join an organization like PFLAG (Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays), where they can be around others who share their dominant identity as heterosexuals but also empathize with their loved ones.

Figure 4.1.3: Heterosexual people with gay family members or friends may join the group PFLAG (Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays) as a part of the redefinition and/or integration stage of their dominant identity development.. (Jason Riedy – Atlanta Pride Festival parade – CC BY 2.0.).