When people move to a new country or culture, their personal identities - such as ethnicity, race, gender, sexuality, ability, and cultural background - play a big role in how they adjust. This process is called acculturation, and it involves learning how to live and communicate in a new cultural environment while still holding on to parts of one’s original identity. For example, someone who identifies as Latinx may find comfort in speaking Spanish at home while learning to use English at school or work. A person with a disability may face challenges if the new culture doesn’t offer accessible transportation, buildings, or communication tools. These barriers can make it harder to adjust and feel included during the acculturation process. Acculturation experiences are different for everyone, and they’re shaped by how society treats each identity group. In this section, we’ll take a look at the acculturation process and we will take a closer look at refugees - people who are forced to migrate - and explore how their identities affect their acculturation journey in even more complex ways.
Cross-cultural adaptation
Those who have the day-to-day experience of living in the culture are likely to have quite a different experience from tourists. This might involve learning and using a second language, coping with bureaucracies, finding out how things get done in that culture, making new friends, and a host of other issues and potential difficulties that everyone living in that culture – native or foreigner – experiences. This process of adjustment is often referred to as acculturation, the learning and adapting of at least some of the values, norms, and behaviors of the new culture. This may be an easy process or long and difficult. That depends on many factors, including one's age, educational level, familiarity with the language and culture, reasons for relocating, support structures available (friends, family, coworkers), and the degree of difference between one's home culture and that of the new residence. Acculturation can be fragmented; that is, one might adapt to some parts of a culture and not others. Ward and Rana-Deuba (1999) distinguish between psychological adjustment (emotional well-being) and sociocultural adaptation (the ability to function day-to-day in the target culture). While psychological adjustment is largely dependent on personality and social support, "sociocultural adaptation, measured in relation to the amount of difficulty experienced in the performance of daily tasks, is more dependent on variables such as length of residence in the new culture, language ability, cultural distance, and the quantity of contact with host nationals" (Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999, p. 424). While both forms of adjustment are present during initial contact with the new culture, normally sociocultural problems steadily decrease over time. Psychological adjustments are more variable.
The process of acculturation - how individuals or groups adapt to a new cultural environment - can vary widely depending on the purpose and duration of intercultural contact. Whether the interaction is driven by colonization, trade, evangelism, or education, the outcomes are shaped by both external pressures and personal choices. Scholar John Berry (Berry & Sam, 1997) identified four main modes of acculturation: assimilation is where individuals shed their original cultural identity to fully adopt the host culture. Integration is where people maintain their heritage while forming positive relationships with the new culture. This is often seen as the most balanced and successful approach. Next, there is separation, where individuals retain their original identity and avoid deep engagement with the host culture. Finally, there’s marginalization, where people feel disconnected from both their heritage and the new culture, often leading to confusion and alienation. Additional patterns of acculturation include segregation, when the dominant culture resists intercultural contact (e.g., apartheid in South Africa), and seclusion, when a non-dominant group chooses to remain apart to preserve its way of life (e.g., the Amish). Richard Mendoza (1989) also introduced cultural transmutation, where individuals identify primarily with a third cultural group - such as youth culture or LGBTQ+ communities - rather than with either their heritage or host culture. These varied responses to migration and cultural contact reflect the complex ways identity and environment interact during the acculturation process.
Student Voice
Immigrating was more than changing an address; it redefined my perspective of the world. My life in India was full of close connections, noisy and hot mornings in our small house, where neighbors felt like family. We trusted each other so much that we shared house keys and the tiniest secrets. Outside, the world was chaotic: streets packed with cars, scooters, and bikes, their endless honking filling the air.
However, coming here felt unreal. The clean, quiet streets, clear weather, and lined houses were surreal. While excited about this new chapter, the silence felt heavy, and I soon faced a huge hurdle: I couldn't communicate.
On my first day of school, I saw groups of laughing friends. I stared down, gripping my backpack as I walked the halls, fighting back tears. When I found my classroom, I sat down and tried to understand the faces around me. I felt so alone that I stayed in my seat through snack and lunch, just waiting for the day to end.
The loneliness sharpened when a friendly girl asked, "Hey, what's your name?" My heart pounded. I could only whisper, "Pushti." She smiled and said, "Cool!" but my tongue felt too heavy to say more. I turned away, my cheeks burning, consumed by embarrassment that made me feel worthless. I cried every day, convinced I didn't belong here. Even when other students invited me to join them, I just stood there awkwardly, not understanding a single word.
I knew I had to adapt and learn, so I mustered every bit of my courage to approach my teacher after class. My hands were sweaty, and my English words were jumbling. "Please," I said, "you speak... too fast. Can you... help me?" I expected her to ignore me, but her eyes softened. She nodded and said, "Of course. I'm so glad you asked." Her kind words lifted a weight from my shoulders.
Soon after, I joined an English Language Development program. We learned through games, which made English fun instead of frightening. It took time, but I slowly started talking with classmates and making friends, regaining my confidence and saving my mom from washing my rumal (handkerchief).
The confidence I built became my foundation. As my English improved, so did my courage. I went from fearing a single sentence to raising my hand in class. That success gave me the bravery for bigger challenges, leading me to honors and AP classes. Each essay I wrote, even with complaints, was a journey of improvement and growth, helping me express my voice and ideas more clearly.
My journey taught me that communication is the most important bridge between cultures. Back then, English was a wall that locked me out. Now, it is the tool I use to connect, learn, and share my story. A language barrier is one of the greatest hurdles to overcome, but remember, your voice matters, and with each small, brave step, you are building your own bridge and becoming a better version of yourself.
Pushti Patel, Community College Transfer Student
The history of immigration in the United States also ties to the way that race has been constructed. The metaphor of the melting pot has been used to describe the immigration history of the United States but doesn’t capture the experiences of many immigrant groups (Allen, 2011). Generally, immigrant groups who were white, or light skinned, and spoke English were better able to assimilate, or melt into the melting pot. But immigrant groups that we might think of as white today were not always considered so. Irish immigrants were discriminated against and even portrayed as black in cartoons that appeared in newspapers. In some Southern states, Italian immigrants were forced to go to black schools, and it wasn’t until 1952 that Asian immigrants were allowed to become citizens of the United States. All this history is important, because it continues to influence communication among races today.
🌍 Acculturation Modes Overview
Types of Acculturation
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Mode
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Definition
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Cultural Identity Retained
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Relationship with Host Culture
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Example
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Assimilation
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Adopting host culture fully; original identity is lost
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❌ No
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✅ Yes
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Changing language, dress, beliefs
|
|
Integration
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Balancing both cultures; bicultural identity
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✅ Yes
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✅ Yes
|
Canada’s multicultural model
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|
Separation
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Keeping original identity; minimal contact with host culture
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✅ Yes
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❌ No
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Ethnic enclaves, selective adaptation
|
|
Marginalization
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Losing connection to both cultures; feeling alienated
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❌ No
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❌ No
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Identity confusion, isolation
|
|
Segregation
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Dominant culture blocks intercultural contact
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✅ Yes (by force)
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❌ No (by exclusion)
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Apartheid in South Africa
|
|
Seclusion
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Non-dominant group chooses isolation to preserve culture
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✅ Yes
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❌ No
|
Amish communities
|
|
Cultural Transmutation
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Adopting a third identity outside host or heritage cultures
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🔁 Mixed
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🔁 Mixed
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LGBTQ+ or youth subcultures
|
Table 4.3.1: Acculturation Modes Overview - Chart adapted from Copilot (2025), licensed under CC BY 4.0
There are many reasons why people migrate to new countries, but one of the most common is the search for stable employment to support themselves and their families. In 2025, millions of women continue to migrate from the global south - such as the Philippines, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Nigeria - to wealthier regions like North America, Europe and countries along the Persian Gulf to work as domestic and care workers. These women often leave behind their own children and communities to care for families of others, a phenomenon sometimes referred to as the “global care chain” (Kapar, 2025).
The emotional toll of this migration is compounded by structural inequalities. Many migrant domestic workers face exploitative labor conditions, such as long hours, withheld wages, and limited freedom of movement - especially under systems like the Kafala sponsoring model in the Middle East. Social acceptance is also uneven. Domestic laborers are often treated differently than migrants who arrive as professionals or students, and class-based discrimination can intersect with race, religion, and immigration status. For example, in France, North African women working in private homes may face both gendered and racialized exclusion, while in the U.S., tensions sometimes arise between middle-class Mexican Americans and newly arrived undocumented migrants, whose presence may be seen as threatening to hard-won social standing (Martin & Nakayama, 2010, p. 339).
Importantly, the visibility and number of migrants can influence public attitudes. When migration is perceived as large-scale or culturally disruptive, host societies may respond with restrictive laws or social backlash. Yet these responses often ignore the deeper economic and emotional realities driving migrations. As the international Labour Organization notes, gender gaps, informal employment, and working poverty remain persistent challenges in global labor markets, especially for women in low-wage sectors like domestic work (International Labour Organization, 2025).
Figure 4.3.1: Filipina nanny in Canada
Getting Critical: Immigration, Laws, and Religion
Immigration, Laws, and Religion
France, like the United States, maintains a constitutional separation between church and state. But in recent years, this principle has sparked intense debate as immigration - especially from Muslim-majority countries - continues to reshape European societies. As of 2025, France is considering a total ban on hijabs in all sporting competitions, following earlier laws that prohibited niqabs in public spaces and headscarves in state schools (Strzyzynska, 2025). These laws are framed as efforts to protect secularism and promote national unity, but critics argue they disproportionately target Muslim women and restrict religious freedom.
During the 2024 Paris Olympics, French athletes were banned from wearing hijabs, promoting backlash from human rights groups like Amnesty International, who called the policy discriminatory (Gull, 2025). The proposed 2025 bill would extend these restrictions to all sports, removing the ability of individual federations to make their own rules. Supporters claim the law helps preserve French values and keeps religion out of public life. Opponents say it stigmatizes Muslim communities and limits personal expression.
These legal debates reflect deeper tensions around assimilation, identity, and belonging. Should immigrants be expected to change how they dress or practice religion to fit in? What happens when laws meant to promote equality end up excluding certain groups?
“In France, hijab bans are low-hanging fruit,” says Mobashra Tazamal of Georgetown University’s Bridge Initiative. “They’re politically popular, but they come at the cost of human dignity.” (Strzyzynska, 2025)
- Some people who support the law argue that part of integrating into Western society is showing your face. Do you agree or disagree? Why?
- Part of the argument for the law is to aid in the assimilation of Muslim immigrants into French society. What are some positives and negatives of this type of assimilation?
- Identify which of the previously discussed dialectics can be seen in this case. How do these dialectics capture the tensions involved?
Old & New Immigrants: Still a Tense Mix in 2025
Tensions between long-established Latino communities and newly arrived immigrants continue to shape social dynamics across the United States. In regions like the Southeast and Midwest, Mexican and Central American migrants have filled labor-intensive jobs in industries such as meatpacking, agriculture, and manufacturing. While these jobs are essential to the economy, they’ve also sparked friction. Many older Latino/a residents - who have worked hard to gain middle-class status and acceptance - feel caught in the middle. They may be criticized by White Americans for imperfect English, while also being judged by newcomers for speaking Spanish with a U.S. accent or for distancing themselves from traditional customs (Martin & Nakayama, 2010, p 339).
This divide is not new. Historically, waves of immigrants have clashed over language, class, and cultural authenticity. But in 2025, these tensions are amplified by shifting immigration policies and economic pressures. According to the National Latino Family Report 2025, 57% of Latino Families worry that friends or relatives may face deportation, and many report avoiding public services out of fear. These anxieties can deepen mistrust between immigrant generations - especially when older, documented residents feel their own status is threatened by the arrival of undocumented workers.
As Sanchez and Pedroza (2025) note, “Latino families are navigating a climate of fear and fragmentation, where immigration status, class, and cultural identity intersect in painful ways.” Understanding these tensions requires a closer look at how identity, language and social belonging evolve across generations.
- How do language, class, and cultural expectations shape the relationship between long-established Latino/a communities and newly arrived immigrants?
- In what ways might older immigrant communities feel both solidarity and conflict with newer arrivals from their country of origin?
- How can educators, community leaders, or policymakers help bridge the gap between “old” and “new” immigrants to promote mutual respect and inclusion?
Refugees: Forced Migration and the Acculturation Journey
While many migrants move to improve their economic situation, others are forced to flee their home countries due to war, persecution, or environmental disaster. In 2025, over 122 million people will have been forcibly displaced worldwide - a sharp increase driven by conflict, climate change, and political instability (International Centre for Migration Policy Development [ICMPD], 2025). These migrants include individuals escaping ethnic or religious discrimination, political repression, or extreme poverty. Some leave alone or in small groups, such as political activists or religious minorities; others as part of mass migrations, like the Rohingya Muslims fleeing Myanmar or displaced families from Ukraine, Syria, and Sudan (Rahmani, 2025).
Refugees often settle in neighboring countries due to proximity and cultural familiarity. For example, Rohingyas have sought refuge in Bangladesh and Thailand, while many Syrians have moved to Turkey and Lebanon. Staying close to home allows for potential repatriation and family reunification. However, temporary refugee camps frequently become semi-permanent settlements, with limited access to education, healthcare, and employment. Refugees are often barred from working, and children may lack formal schooling, which hinders both personal development and long-term integration (Martin & Nakayama, 2010).
The acculturation process for refugees is especially complex. Unlike voluntary migrants who may choose how to engage with a new culture, refugees often face marginalization - limited resources, social exclusion, and legal restrictions that prevent full participation in society (Berry & Sam, 1997). Host communities may resent the use of public resources or feal cultural disruption, sometimes leading to discrimination or violence. In Europe, backlash against refugees from the Middle East and Africa between 2014 and 2016 fueled the rise of anti-immigrant political parties and policies that continue to shape migration debates today (Parkes, 2016).
Despite these challenges, innovative efforts are helping refugees navigate acculturation. Mobile phones have become lifelines, allowing migrants to share travel tips, locate safe routes, and access legal and cultural resources. Apps like InfoAid, Gherbtna, and Crisis Info Hub offer support for language learning, legal navigation, and day-to-day survival. Yet digital tools can only go so far. Successful acculturation depends on the reception refugees receive, the opportunities available, and the support systems in place to help them build meaningful lives (Parkes, 2016).
For those granted asylum or permanent residence, acculturation is not a one-time event but a long-term process. Refugees must learn to balance their cultural heritage with the norms of the host society - often while coping with trauma, loss, and uncertainty. Integration programs that offer language training, employment pathways, and community support are essential to fostering bicultural identities and reducing marginalization (Berry & Sam, 2016; ICMPD, 2025).
