Bilingualism and Multilingualism
The complex identities created through the forces of globalization, mass migration, and the growth of social media, have also resulted in linguistic complexity (Piller, 2017). Individuals are much more likely than in the past to be exposed, in person or online, to speakers of other languages. The plurality of languages may well happen within one’s own family. As travel and migration have brought more people from different cultures together, there has been a growth in families in which parents have different mother tongues. Children in such households are likely to be brought up speaking both languages, becoming bilingual. Bilingualism may as well result from individuals or families migrating and continuing to speak the language of their home culture, while learning that of the host country. Studies have shown that not only do bilinguals have the advantage of likely fluency in two languages, but that the process of growing up bilingual also has a positive effect on brain development (Albert & Obler, 1978).
Bilinguals may differ in their level of proficiency in the languages they speak. Normally a bilingual will have one dominant language (Grosjean, 2001). It may be, for example, that children speaking the language of their parents at home may not develop a good reading or writing ability in that language. Some schools and universities in which there are large numbers of such "heritage" speakers, often have specially designed courses which help such students develop full capabilities in those languages. People who know more than one language have been shown to be more adept at language learning (Kaushanskaya & Marian, 2009).
In most parts of the world today, most individuals have at least some capability in a second language: "The majority of the world's population uses more than one language on a regular basis and monolingualism is by and large a historical and Anglophone anomaly" (Piller, 2017, pp. 71-72). This is a matter of necessity in countries such as Luxembourg, Nigeria, or Indonesia in which there are multiple languages coexisting in geographically close quarters. Inhabitants of smaller countries, with their own national languages, such as Denmark, Estonia, or Nauru (an island country in Micronesia) will, due to economic and practical concerns, typically learn the language of larger neighboring countries. However, in this context as in others, political and nationalist issues may influence language learning choices.
Many countries have more than one officially recognized national language, including Canada (English and French), Switzerland (French, German, Italian, Romansch), South Africa (11 languages), and India (22 languages). It’s not the case that in multilingual societies all speakers are necessarily multilingual. Particular languages may be spoken predominately in one region, as is the case for French in Canada or Italian in Switzerland. In other cases, language use may be distributed according to ethnic heritage, as can be seen in Singapore or Malaysia. In some countries, there may be different versions of a common language, as is the case in Switzerland with Swiss German and standard German, or in Arabic, with the "high" version being Modern Standard Arabic, used in writing and in formal speech, and the many regional, colloquial versions (Egyptian, Maghrebi, Peninsular, etc.).
Figure 5.2.1: Tamil, English and Hindi named board at the Tirusulam suburban railway station in Chennai.
Bilingualism and multilingualism create both opportunities and challenges for intercultural communication. Knowing more than one language allows people to bridge cultural divides, but differences in proficiency or social attitudes toward certain languages can lead to misunderstandings or unequal participation. These dynamics highlight the importance of flexibility and respect when communicating across cultures. Building on this, we now turn to the topic of second language acquisition to explore how people learn and develop new language skills in intercultural settings.
Learning a Second Language
Learning a second language provides insight into how language works. Many monolinguals are likely to assume that the difference between languages is largely semantic, that is to say that moving from one language to another is simply a matter of substituting words. We have seen in the example of Warlpiri how far that can be from reality. In fact, the very same word equivalents can be put together in very different ways. Some languages such as Arabic make rich use of metaphorical language, for example. In all languages there are idioms and fixed expressions that have meaning beyond the literal denotations of constituent words. One of the ways words are used differently is in collocations – groupings of words that conventionally go together. In English, for example, we say "make your bed" but "do your homework", with the verbs not being interchangeable despite similarity in meaning. The lexical approach to language learning emphasizes the study of vocabulary in context, including collocations and idiomatic expressions (Lewis, 1993).
How sentences are put together can vary significantly by language. Learning German, for example, will expose learners to syntax
(word order) that is quite different from the way sentences are put together in many languages, i.e. subject – verb – object (SVO). In German, that word order can be used, but it is common to have something other than the subject at the beginning of the sentence. At the beginning of newscasts on German television, it is common to hear the phrase, Ihnen einen guten Abend, literally "to you (formal you) a good evening". German indicates the role of a noun or pronoun in the sentence not by its placement but by its form or ending. These morphological variations – changes in endings – are crucial to understanding what a sentence says. Sme languages build meaning by stacking smaller word parts, like prefixes (added to the beginning) and suffixes (added to the end), onto a root word. A humorous example from German is Donaudampfschifffahrtsgesellschaftskapitänskajüttenschlossschlüssel, which translates to “the key to the lock of the cabin of the captain of a Danube steamboat company.” While this word is grammatically correct, it’s not commonly used 0 it’s more of a playful showcase of how German allows long compound words through continuous suffix addition. German isn’t the only language with this kind of structure. In Eskimo-Aluet languages, for instance, speakers often build what would be full sentences in English by attaching multiple prefixes and suffixes to a single root. This process, called polysynthesis, allows for highly compact and expressive communication. These examples show how different languages organize meaning in unique ways - and remind us that language is flexible, creative, and often quite funny (see example in sidebar).
Sample Inuit word (Eskimo-Aleut language)
ᑐᓵᑦᓯᐊᕈᓐᓇᖖᒋᑦᑐᐊᓘᔪᖓ
Tusaatsiarunnanngittualuujunga
I can't hear very well.
This long word is composed of a root word tusaa- 'to hear' followed by five suffixes:
- -tsiaq- "well"
- -junnaq- "be able to"
- -nngit- negation
- -tu(q) indicative third-person singular
- -alu(k)-: augmentative ("very")
- -u-: "be"
- -junga: indicative first-person singular (itself composed of the indicative morpheme -ju- and the first person mark -nga)
Inuit grammar/Wikipedia(opens in new window)
In some languages, learning sometimes subtle variations in pronunciation can be crucially important. In Mandarin Chinese, for example, there are four tones in which syllables are pronounced and the exact same phoneme (minimal unit of sound) can have four different meanings depending on the tone (high, low, rising, rising and falling). The syllable “ma” in Mandarin could be mā (mother), má (to bother), mǎ (horse), mà (to scold), or ma (neutral tone, used as an interrogative particle). One of the helpful tools linguists have created in the field of phonetics (the production of sounds) and phonology (how sounds are put together) is the IPA, the International Phonetic Alphabet (MacMahon, 1986). It allows an accurate representation of sounds in all human languages, including the variety of clicks in some African languages. In some cases, the IPA transcription is easy to understand, for example, “good” as [gud]. In other cases, symbols are used that are not part of the regular alphabet, for example, thicker as [θɪkə] or child as [tʃaɪld].
The degree of difficulty in learning a second language can vary depending on a number of factors, such as motivation, time commitment, and innate ability to learn. Some learners are able to imitate very closely the sounds of a native speaker; others have great difficulty in that area, particularly if they start learning the language later in life. The critical period hypothesis claims that there is an ideal time window for acquiring language, namely as children or adolescents (Harley & Wang, 1997). This is particularly true for developing native-like pronunciation and fluent oral communication skills. Older learners, on the other hand, tend to do well with learning grammar and structure, the analytical aspect of language learning. The degree of difficulty is also dependent on the level of fluency and accuracy one hopes to attain. People learn languages for different reasons, and some learners may just need a reading ability.
Figure 5.2.2: Learning German at the Smarter Language Academy in Nigeria
Most current theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) advocate a sociocognitive approach, combining learning of vocabulary and grammar through drills and repetition and culturally strategic knowledge and strategic competence, i.e., what's appropriate to say in a given context. The current trend in language instruction is to put more emphasis on the latter. This involves developing practical and pragmatically appropriate speaking ability (Savignon, 1983). The emphasis is on use of functional language in real communicative contexts, often using a task-based approach. This involves having students use real world situations to practice language. There is a growing recognition that for most learners, functional ability in a second language should be the goal.
Immigrants sometimes reach a level of ability that provides basic functionality in the language. At that point they may stop formal training or make conscious efforts to improve, their pronunciation and grammar becoming "fossilized" at the functional level achieved (Acton, 1984). In the field of SLA today, it is recognized that language learners vary considerably in their goals and needs and that not every learner needs to develop native-like pronunciation or perfect grammar. The standard for most learners is likely to be intelligibility, being able to make oneself understood. In some cases, mispronunciation of individual sounds is less important for intelligibility than intonation or idiomatic word choice. Unfortunately, the public at large does not share the perspective of SLA, so those who speak with a noticeable accent or use faulty grammar can face prejudice and discrimination, despite being eminently intelligible.
One of the other determiners of language learning ease or difficulty is the similarity or dissimilarity of the second language to one's native tongue. It is clearly much easier for a native English speaker to learn Spanish or German than to learn Arabic or Mandarin. For those languages, a completely different writing system must be learned. It's also the case that Spanish and German, like English, are members of the same language family of Indo-European, which means that they have similar genealogies. As a result, there are similarities in grammar and vocabulary. A high number of cognates – words which resemble each other – between the two languages can be very helpful, especially in the early stages of language learning.
Language and language learning are both such complex phenomena, that there is not likely to be one "right" way or best approach to SLA (see Godwin-Jones, 2018). The diversity of learner backgrounds, available learning resources, and level of need/interest mean that no individual is likely to learn a new language in precisely the same way. This has led to a great deal of interest in how language development can be personalized to individual learners (see Godwin-Jones, 2017c; Ortega, 2017).
Ultimately, if or how well learners acquire a second language depends on the individual. One's attitude is a crucial factor. If one is highly motivated to learn because of extrinsic factors, such as a migrant's need for functional ability in an adopted country, that can lead to more intense and faster learning. There may be compelling professional reasons for needing to learn a second language, such as being posted to a foreign country. Intrinsic motivating factors may play a role. Those might include a desire to learn more about another culture to maintain or establish a connection to one's ethnic heritage. Polyglots, speakers of multiple languages, are motivated to learn as many languages as possible.
Figure 5.2.3: Aurtor JRR Tolkien knew many languages and invented languages.
In any case, maintaining a positive attitude is important in intercultural communication generally, and is of great benefit as well in language learning. A spirit of openness and curiosity is needed. If one is willing to use the language learned to engage in conversation with other learners or native speakers, faster progress is likely. The author of a well-known textbook on intercultural communication entitled one of the chapters "Language as a barrier" (Jandt, 2012). In fact, the opposite is true, learning a second language is a gateway into another culture, the most effective way to get an inside track on the perspective from which speakers of the language view the world.
Language Learning and Technology
"A foreign language is not simply something to add to our repertoire of skills, but a personalized tool that enables us to expand and express our identity or sense of self in new and interesting ways and with new kinds of people" (Ushioda, 2011, p. 204).
Today, online learning tools have transformed language learning by making resources widely accessible, flexible, and interactive. Learners can use apps like Duolingo or Mango Languages, connect with peers through tandem learning platforms like Mixxer, or join MOOC’s (Massively Open Online Courses). These tools not only support vocabulary and grammar learning but also create opportunities for authentic conversations with native speakers, offering exposure to cultural perspectives that classroom instruction alone may not provide (Brammerts, 1996; Ushioda, 2011). However, the effectiveness of such tools depends on how they are used - some focus heavily on drills and may neglect cultural context, which is crucial for successful communication across cultures (Lord, 2015). For intercultural communication, this means that language learning online is not just about mastering words, but about engaging with people, building cultural awareness, and developing the skills to navigate real conversations across cultural boundaries.
Figure 5.2.4: Ad for Rosetta Stone promising social benefits
English as a world language
Often there is a close and natural connection between the language one learns and the culture represented by that language. In fact, interest in the target culture may be the starting point for learning a new language. In some cases, there is a tighter connection to a single culture than for others. Learners of Japanese, for example, are in a different position from learners of Spanish in that there are fewer regional variations and only one nation-state where Japanese is spoken. From that perspective, English is even more diverse culturally than Spanish. That derives not just from the fact that English is the official language of a variety of countries, but that it also functions as the lingua franca for exchanges between people with different native languages. According to the International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD, 2025), English remains the dominant language for international communication, especially in education, business, and diplomacy. The number of non-native English speakers now far exceeds native speakers, reinforcing its status as a culturally diverse and globally adaptive language.English is seen in many countries as an essential tool for social and economic advancement. At the same time, English is sometimes seen as an instrument of cultural imperialism, given the history of colonization, evangelization and spread of US consumer/popular culture from the Anglophone world. The spread of English is often accompanied by Western, more specifically Anglo-Saxon cultural values.
The role that English as a language plays in a given culture may vary considerably. Given its history as a former English colony,
Hong Kong, for example, is a city in which there are many people who speak English in their everyday lives. Hong Kongers use English "quite comfortably with one another when they are at school or in the office. It is considered strange, however, to use it in daily conversation" (Scollon, Scollon & Jones, 2012, p. 6). This is in contrast to Singapore, India, or South Africa, where there may be speakers of a variety of other languages so that English is needed as a lingua franca. In Hong Kong, by contrast, English is not needed, as native Hong Kongers speak Cantonese. Scollon, Scollon & Jones (2012) point out that using English in Hong Kong outside of institutional settings carries with it social significance:
[This is] based partly on the groups of people that use it such as teachers and other authority figures as well as non-Cantonese speaking “foreigners,” and so by appropriating English into casual conversation with another Cantonese speaker, one might be claiming a certain affiliation with those groups of people, or one might be thought by the people to whom one is talking to be claiming such an affiliation, to be “showing off ,” or, at the very least, to be acting unduly formal (p. 6).
The different social significance of speaking English across cultures points to the inherent cultural forces language embodies beyond serving as a means of communication. Language choice can be a way to position oneself socially. In many cultures, English may be an important component of individual identity and agency.
The interest in English has resulted in a boom in English classes in many countries. At the same time, there has been a shift in how English is taught as a second language. It is no longer the case that learning English is tied necessarily to learning as well about the culture of Great Britain or the USA. The kind of English taught may in fact not be either British English or North American English, but rather a version which adapts to a local variety of English or strives to model International or World English. The latter concept has evolved out of the desire to minimize cultural influences from North America and Great Britain in language learning, as well as to deal with differences in usage (spelling, vocabulary, pronunciation) among Englishes in Anglophone countries. There have even been attempts, such as Basic Global English, to create a kind of neutral, bare-bones version of the language (Grzega, 2006). On the other hand, there have been efforts locally to teach English within the context of a local culture. That has been the case, for example, in Vietnam (Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996) and Pakistan (Malik, 1993).
Many people are learning English for highly utilitarian reasons, to advance socially or professionally. As a result, there is a lot of interest in "English for Special Purposes," English classes tailored to those with particular professional needs, such as business, tourism, or a highly technical field. This may lead to a limited proficiency in English within a narrow semantic field. An example is Aviation English, called AirSpeak, the version of English universally used by pilots and air traffic controllers (International Civil Aviation Organization, 2003). There have been some concerns expressed that pilots with AirSpeak-level English proficiency can deal very well with routine situations that occur in the air, but might have some difficulty describing unusual events in English. The example given in the sidebar illustrates potential issues with language, but also possibly with sociocultural factors, namely the possible reluctance of a pilot to admit ignorance.
Example: Airspeak
On August 2, 1976, a Boeing 707 cargo flight departed from Tehran to Seoul and collided with the mountain due to a wrong turn. The following is the conversation between Air Traffic Controller (ATC) and the pilot. Standard Instrument Departure (SID) is published flight procedure followed by aircraft immediately after takeoff from an airport
- ATC to Pilot: “Follow SID 11”
- Pilot to ATC: “What is SID 11?”
- ATC to Pilot: “Standard Instrument Departure 11”
- Pilot action: Silence
Hazrati & Touiserkani (2016)
In the early days of the Internet there was concern that English would crowd out all other languages. That has not, however, been the case. Statistics show much faster Internet growth in countries where English is not the dominant language (Internet World Stats, 2017). In 1996, more than 80 percent of Internet users were native English speakers. By 2010, that percentage had dropped to 27.3 percent. Online services are increasingly available in multiple languages, Wikipedia in 295 languages and Facebook in 101 (Ortega, 2017). However, it remains a reality that English growth may lead to the decline of other languages. In some countries, private universities have opened up in which the language of instruction is English. The popularity since 2012 of MOOCs, which have predominantly been offered in English, from US universities, has led some to worry about that form of distance learning in English replacing local educational resources (Godwin-Jones, 2014). Whether the cause is or is not the spread of English, it does remain that a large number of the world's languages are today threatened with extinction (Choi, 2014).
In sum, English has evolved beyond its colonial and national origins to become a global tool for communication, education, and professional advancement. As we have seen, language is not neutral as it shapes and reflects identity, power, and belonging. The global rise of English, while opening doors for many, also raises important questions about cultural dominance and linguistic equity. This brings us to a critical concern in intercultural communication: the fate of endangered languages. As English and other dominant languages expand, thousands of smaller languages face extinction - taking with them unique worldviews, traditions, and ways of relating to others. Understanding the loss of these languages is not just a linguistic issue - it’s also a cultural issue. In the next section, we’ll explore how language death affects intercultural understanding and why preserving linguistic diversity matters for the future of global communication.
Endangered Languages
As of 2025, over 7,000 languages are spoken worldwide, yet more than 2,500 are endangered and roughly 2,000 have fewer than
1, 000 speakers (ICMPD, 2025). While linguistic diversity remains vast, global communication is dominated by a handful of languages - especially English as we read in the above section. According to Rao (2025), there are now over 1.5 billion speakers of English, most of whom use it as a second language. Languages like Chinese and Tamil continue to be among the oldest still spoken today, reflecting deep cultural heritage and resilience (Pulse Nigeria, 2025). These trends highlight the tension between global language spread and the urgent need to preserve endangered languages, a key concern in intercultural communication.
It is estimated that nearly 40% of the world’s 7,000+ languages are endangered, with many at risk of extinction within the next century (Couturier, 2025; IUCN, 2024). This threat is especially acute for indigenous languages in regions such as the Americas and Asia, where globalization, urbanization, and the dominance of world languages like English, Spanish, and Mandarin have accelerated language loss. In North America alone, of the 165 Indigenous languages still spoken, only 8 have more than 10,000 speakers, while approximately 75 are spoken only by a few elders, placing them on the brink of extinction (Couturier, 2025).
Figure 5.2.5: Linguist Gregory Anderson interviews a Koro speaker in India.
The disappearance of these languages represent more than a loss of vocabulary - it signals the erosion of human cultural capital. For languages without written systems, the death of the last speaker often means the loss of oral histories, traditional knowledge, and ecological wisdom. For example, when words for native plants vanish, so too does the knowledge of their medicinal or ritual uses (IUCN, 2024). Each language encodes a unique worldview, and when it dies, a culture may die with it.
Efforts to preserve endangered languages include field linguists recording native speakers and archiving their speech. Advances in digital technology have made documentation more accessible, but they also introduce dominant languages into previously isolated communities, sometimes hastening the decline of local tongues. The challenge, then, is not only to record these languages but to revitalize them in ways that honour their cultural roots and support intergenerational transmission.
Cultural Close-up: Nushu - A Script of Sisterhood and Survival
Nüshu (女书), meaning “women’s writing,” is a rare syllabic script developed by Yao women in Jiangyong County, Hunan Province, China. Unlike standard Chinese characters, Nüshu was used exclusively by women to express their thoughts, emotions, and experiences in a society where female literacy was discouraged and their voices often silenced. Passed down through embroidery, letters, and songs, Nüshu became a quiet form of resistance and solidarity.
By the late 20th century, Nüshu was nearly extinct, with only a handful of fluent users remaining. Its decline was due to modernization, increased female literacy in standard Chinese, and the fading of traditional village life. But recent efforts—like the NüshuRescue project—are breathing new life into the script. Using AI and machine learning, researchers have created the first publicly available Nüshu–Chinese parallel corpus (NCGold), enabling translation and preservation of this endangered language with minimal human input.
Nüshu’s revival is more than linguistic—it’s cultural. It reminds us that language is deeply tied to identity, gender, and power. In intercultural communication, Nüshu challenges us to consider whose voices are heard, whose are hidden, and how preserving endangered languages can restore lost narratives.
Discussion Questions
1. How does Nüshu reflect the intersection of language, gender, and power in traditional Chinese society?
2. What are the ethical and cultural implications of using AI to preserve endangered languages like Nüshu?
3. In what ways can the revival of Nüshu inform broader efforts to preserve other endangered languages and cultural practices?
References (APA Style)
Yang, I., Ma, W., & Vosoughi, S. (2025). NushuRescue: Revitalization of the endangered Nushu language with AI. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.00218
Simple Science. (2025, May 1). Reviving Nüshu: A language in peril. https://scisimple.com/en/articles/2025-05-01-reviving-nushu-a-language-in-peril--ak5e1pv
Copilot. (2025). Nüshu — A script of sisterhood and survival [Sidebar]. Microsoft Copilot. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Translation & Interpretation
Because no one can learn every language, we rely on translators and interpreters. On the surface level, translation and interpretation seem to be much the same thing, with one skill relying on written texts and the other occurring orally. Both translation and interpretation enable communication across language boundaries from source to target. Both need deep cultural and linguistic understanding along with expert knowledge of the subject area and the ability to communicate clearly, but this is where the similarities end.
Translation generally involves the process of producing a written text that refers to something written in another language. Traditionally, the translator would read the source in its original language, decipher its meaning, then write, rewrite, and proofread the content in the target language to ensure the original meaning, style and content are preserved. Some translators use computer-aided tools to convert the source into a file type for electronic translation, then proof-read each section of the text for quality of content, meaning, and style in the target language. Transferring meaning from one language to another can sometimes make for interesting twists. The New York Times Sterngold, J. (11/15/98) noted that the title of the 1998 film There’s Something About Mary proved difficult to translate when it was released in foreign markets. In Poland, where blonde jokes are popular and common, the film title (translated back to English for our use) was For the Love of a Blonde. In France, Mary at All Costs communicated the idea, while in Thailand My True Love Will Stand All Outrageous Events dropped the reference to Mary altogether. Capturing ideas with words is a challenge when the intended audience speaks the same language, but across languages and cultures, the challenge becomes intense. Translators are often experts in their fields of knowledge as well as linguists fluent in two or more languages with excellent written communication skills.
Interpretation is the process of orally expressing what is said or written in another language. Contrary to popular belief, interpretation isn’t a word-for-word translation of a spoken message. If it was, it wouldn’t make sense to the target audience. Interpreters need to transpose the source language within the given context, preserving its original meaning, but rephrasing idioms, colloquialisms, and other culturally-specific references in ways that the target audience can understand. They may have to do this in a simultaneous manner to the original speaker or by speaking only during the breaks provided by the original speaker. Interpreters are also often experts in fields of knowledge, cultures, and languages with excellent memories.
The roles of translators and interpreters are very complex. Not everyone who has levels of fluency in two languages makes a good translator or interpreter. Complex relationships between people, intercultural situations, and intercultural contexts involve more than just language fluency, but rather culture fluency.
The roles of translators and interpreters highlight a key principle in intercultural communication: language is inseparable from culture, and successful communication depends on understanding both. Whether written or spoken, transferring meaning across cultures requires not just linguistic skill but cultural fluency - an awareness of how people interpret, relate, and respond within their own cultural frameworks.
Contributors and Attributions
Language and Culture in Context: A Primer on Intercultural Communication, by Robert Godwin-Jones. Provided by LibreTexts.
License: CC-BY-NC
Intercultural Communication for the Community College, by Karen Krumrey-Fulks. Provided by LibreTexts. License: CC-BY-NC-SA
Adapted from: Exploring Intercultural Communication, by Tom Grothe. Provided by LibreTexts. License: CC-BY
