10.2.1: Federal Agencies

The federal government rarely delivers public health services directly; it exerts significant influence by setting national goals, policies, and regulatory standards. It further sustains the healthcare system by funding care for vulnerable groups (via programs like Medicare and Medicaid), investing in medical research and education, and developing the technological tools necessary to strengthen public health infrastructure nationwide (Institute of Medicine, 2002). 

The federal government manages public health through a system involving all three branches of government (Executive, Legislative, and Judicial). Public health oversight is distributed among various agencies under the President's leadership. These agencies possess the legal authority to establish national policies, particularly regarding the movement of people and goods. Key powers include regulating quarantine and isolation for individuals entering the country, enforcing border and migration controls for health reasons (such as Title 42), and managing public health safety measures related to interstate commerce and travel. The federal government's role is as follows (Michaud, Kates, Oum, & Rouw, 2025): 

• The Executive Branch (The President): This branch carries out and enforces the laws. Federal agencies (such as the FDA) fall under this branch and handle the daily work of monitoring food safety, tracking diseases, and managing health programs.

• The Legislative Branch (Congress): This branch writes the laws that govern public health. It also determines how much funding agencies like the CDC or NIH receive each year.

• The Judicial Branch (The Courts): This branch interprets the laws. When there are disputes over public health mandates—such as whether the government has the power to require vaccines or impose environmental regulations—the courts decide whether those actions are lawful under the U.S. Constitution.

As of 2026, the federal public health landscape is undergoing a significant reorganization under the "Make America Healthy Again" (MAHA) initiative, which is consolidating several traditional agencies into new divisions to streamline operations. In the United States, federal public health is managed through several specialized agencies. Most of these sit within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), but other departments also handle specific health-related tasks, such as environmental safety and food inspection (Institute of Medicine, 1988). Key federal agencies responsible for the administration and oversight of public health in the U.S. include the following:

Department of Health and Human Services

The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) leads national public health efforts, primarily through the various agencies that form the U.S. Public Health Service. Some of the key agencies are listed below. It is important to note that Congress exerts oversight by reviewing program authorizations and budgets through various House and Senate committees that share responsibility for DHHS and broader federal health activities. As the primary federal hub of the nation’s public health system, the DHHS coordinates with other federal departments and state and local agencies. Its core functions include establishing policy, funding public health initiatives, protecting the population, and managing health data. Additionally, the department focuses on strengthening health infrastructure and directly overseeing the delivery of specific medical services (such as community health centers and maternal and child health services) (Institute of Medicine, 2002). The following are the most prominent agencies in the DHHS:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the federal government’s premier public health authority, focusing on improving national health outcomes and managing emergency responses. The agency is organized into a central Director’s Office, a global health center, and nine specialized national centers that house expert researchers, advanced laboratories, and communication networks. Beyond its internal research, a primary pillar of the CDC’s mission is providing critical funding and technical expertise to bolster state and local health departments (Michaud, Kates, Oum, & Rouw, 2025).

Food and Drug Administration

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) serves as a critical regulatory guardian, tasked with safeguarding public health by verifying the safety and effectiveness of a wide array of products. Its oversight ensures that human and veterinary medicines, biological products, and medical devices are both secure and functional before reaching the public. A primary function of the FDA is to conduct rigorous review and authorization of all prescription medications, vaccines, and other high-risk health technologies. Beyond medicine, the agency monitors significant portions of the nation's food supply, regulates cosmetics, and manages products that emit radiation (Michaud, Kates, Oum, & Rouw, 2025).

Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response

Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response (ASPR) serves as the lead division for managing the medical and public health aspects of disasters and emergencies. Its mission spans the entire crisis lifecycle: preparing for threats, coordinating the immediate response, and guiding long-term recovery efforts. ASPR strengthens national resilience by developing medical countermeasures, providing technical guidance to state and local partners, and maintaining critical supplies to ensure the country is ready for biological, chemical, or natural threats (Michaud, Kates, Oum, & Rouw, 2025).

U.S. Department of Agriculture

The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) impacts public health primarily through food safety (inspecting meat, poultry, eggs), nutrition programs  (like SNAP, school lunches, dietary guidelines), and rural health initiatives, ensuring safe food, fighting hunger, promoting healthy eating, and supporting rural infrastructure, all while conducting research on food-borne illnesses and nutritional science (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2026). 

Environmental Protection Agency

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) protects public health by regulating pollutants, setting environmental standards for clean air and water, researching health impacts of chemicals, managing hazardous waste, and ensuring safe pesticides, all through developing regulations, enforcing laws, and collaborating with health officials to prevent diseases from environmental factors like pollution and toxins (Environmental Protection Agency, 2025).

Indian Health Services

The Indian Health Services (IHS) offers direct medical and wellness services to tribal communities. Supporting approximately 550 federally recognized tribes across a 35-state service area (Indian Health Services, n.d.).

National Institute of Health

The National Institute of Health (NIH) is the primary agency for biomedical and health-related research, operating under the Department of Health and Human Services. With over 27 specialized institutes and centers, it conducts in-house research and supports scientists nationwide to improve health, lengthen life, and reduce illness (National Institute of Health, n.d.)

 

 

Reference

Environmental Protection Agency. (2025). Human Exposure and Health. EPA. www.epa.gov

Indian Health Services (n.d.). About IHS. IHS www.ihs.gov

Institute of Medicine. (1988). The Future of Public Health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press. Summary of the Public Health System in the United States.  National Library of Medicine www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Institute of Medicine. (2002). The future of public health in the 21st Century. Washington (DC): National Academy Press. The governmental public health infrastructure. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Michaud, J., Kates, J., Oum, S., & Rouw, A. (2025). What is public health?  Kaiser Family Foundation www.kff.org

National Institute of Health. (n.d.). About NIH. NIH www.nih.gov

U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2026). Health and Safety. USDA www.usda.gov