13.4: Arguments and Their Parts
- Page ID
- 199353
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)From Reasoning to Argument
As stated previously, reasoning is the process whereby a person changes their system of belief on the basis of reasons which they take to justify this change. An argument is a series of reasons; a series of statements for or against something. When we reason, we take our belief that our reasons are true to justify our belief that our conclusion is true. That is, we reason by means of arguments.
Arguments and Their Parts
When it comes to arguments, it is important to make two terminological distinctions. First, the term ‘argument’ as it is defined above differs from another common sense of the term. We often use the term ‘an argument’ to refer to a disagreement, dispute, or act of verbal aggression. This is not how we will be using the term. Here is an example of a dispute that is not an argument as this book uses the term.
Ex. 1:
Maria: Eating meat is irresponsible and unnecessary.
Jackson: Are you crazy? No it is not.
Why isn’t this disagreement an example of an argument? The answer, in short, is because neither person has tried to justify what they are saying. Presumably each person has reasons for thinking they are right, but as conversation stands all that has been publicly expressed is a disagreement. Compare Ex. 1 to the following.
Ex. 2:
I bet the Phillies will win their game tonight since they are on a hot streak.
Example 2 is an argument since a reason is offered on behalf of a conclusion.
A second terminological note is that all arguments have two parts—the premises and the conclusion. The premises of an argument give reasons or evidence on behalf of the conclusion; put otherwise, premises are the pieces of information that back-up or justify the conclusion. (Note: the terms "reasons" and "premises" are often used interchangeably; the academic/technical term for reasons is premises.) The conclusion, on the other hand, is the proposition for which reasons or evidence are given, it is that proposition which is backed-up or justified. We can label the parts of the arguments above accordingly:
Ex. 3:
Premise—The Phillies are on a hot streak
Conclusion—The Phillies will win their game tonight.
This raises a second point. Arguments can be good or bad. When we come to believe a conclusion on the basis of the premises we do so because we have judged that the premises justify or establish the conclusion. But we can be wrong about this. Sometimes arguments that we take to be good, are not. In general terms, good arguments are arguments in which the premises establish their conclusion, whereas bad arguments are those in which the premises do not. Correspondingly, we reason well when our beliefs are based on good arguments and we reason poorly when they are not. Thus, in order to improve our reasoning, we will have to learn how to properly evaluate arguments. Doing so is a two-step process. Most obviously, we will need to learn how to distinguish between good arguments and bad ones. This information is useless, however, if we cannot accurately identify and analyze arguments. Put otherwise, you cannot accurately assess whether an argument is good or bad, if you don’t know what the premises are, and how they are related to the conclusion. Let us take an introductory look at these two steps.