Image Descriptions

Social Problems Chapter

Model 1.1: Best's Model of Claimsmaking: The Social Problems Process

In this model the six steps of claimsmaking are defined and organized in a circle: 1) Claimsmaking: People make claims that there is a social problem, with certain characteristics, causes, and solutions. 2) Media Coverage: Media report on claimsmakers so that news of the claims reaches a broader audience. 3) Public Reaction: Public opinion focuses on the social problem identified by the claimsmakers. 4) Policymaking: Lawmakers and others with the power to set policies to create new ways to address the problem. 5) Social Problems Work: Agencies implement the new policies, including calls for further changes. 6) Policy Outcomes: There are various responses to the new arrangements.

Sociology Chapter

Model 2.1: The Culture Wheel

This model visualizes a culture’s beliefs, actions, and backgrounds. The wheel names these categories: 1) values, 2) greater community, 3) knowledge and stories, 4) language, 5) traditions and rituals, 6) techniques and skills, 7) tools and objects, 8) the arts, and 9) food and drink.

Chart 2.1: Systems of Power

This chart has an overarching column named Marginalization with subcolumns for Systems of Oppression and Oppressed groups, and an overarching column named Power with subcolumns for Systems of Privilege and Privilege Groups. The chart has rows for Areas of Social Location. Across each row the text reads: 1) Social class: Classism, working-class and poor people, class privilege, middle-class and upper-class people. 2) Race: Racism, people of color, white privilege, white people. 3) Gender: Sexism, women, male privilege, men. 4) Gender: Cissexism, transgender and nonbinary people, cisgender privilege, cisgender people. 5) Sexuality: Heterosexism, LGBQ+ people, heterosexual or straight privilege, heterosexual people. 6) Age: Ageism, older and elderly adults, age privilege, young and middle-aged adults. 7) Ability: Ableism, disabled people, able-bodied or neuro-typical privilege, able-bodied and neurotypical people. 

Model 2.2: Intersecting Social Identities

This model is a flower-like visualization with a semi-opaque circle in the middle. Rainbow-colored ovals radiate from the middle like petals. These overlap with the oval on either side and with the circle in the middle. Each oval has one of the following social identities written in it: Nationality, First Language, Religion, Ability, Neurodiversity, Health, Body size, Age, Sex, Gender, Sexuality, Race, Culture, Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status (SES), and Geography.

Infographic 2.1: Key Sociological Thinkers, Industrial Revolution to the Great Depression

In this infographic the center line includes events and movements such as the invention of the printing press (1440), the first steam engine patent (1698), the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840), the Civil War (1861-1865), the invention of the telephone (1876), the launch of the Ford Model T (1908), World War I (1914-1918), the 19th amendment (1920), and the Great Depression (1929-1939). On either side are boxes with information about the thinkers, some of whom have headshots next to their information. Harriet Martineau [a woman with light skin, brown hair, and a half smile] lived from 1802-1867 and was British. She developed sociological methods, studied the status of women, and wrote the book Society in America (1837). Karl Marx [in a black and white photo with a large white beard] lived from 1818-1883 and was German. He developed the idea of class consciousness and wrote The Communist Manifesto in 1848 with Frederich Engels. Emile Durkheim lived from 1858-1917 and was French. He developed the ideas of anomie and collective consciousness and wrote Le Suicide in 1897. Anna Julia Cooper [a woman with dark skin and hair looking directly at the camera] lived from 1858-1963 and was American. She is considered the founder of black feminism and wrote A Voice from the South: By a Black Woman of the South (1892). Jane Addams [a painting of a serious woman with light skin and a dark bun] lived from 1860-1935 and was an American social reformer. She founded Hull House and wrote Hull House Papers and Maps (1893). Ida B. Wells [a smiling woman with dark skin and coiffed dark hair] lived from 1862-1931 and was American. She exposed lynching as white supremacy and wrote Southern Horrors: Lynching Law in All Its Phases (1892). Max Weber lived from 1864 to 1920 and was German. He studied bureaucracy and the impact of values. He wrote The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905). W.E.B. Du Bois lived from 1868-1963 and was American. He developed the ideas of double consciousness and the veil. He wrote the Souls of Black Folks in 1903. Eugene Kinckle Jones [shown as a young man with medium skin and a mustache] lived from 1885-1954 and was American. He was a leader of the national urban league, an advocate for black communities, and an anti-segregation activist.

Infographic 2.2: Modern Sociologists

In this infographic the center line includes events and movements such as World War II (1939-1945), the Civil Rights Movement (1945-1968), the Vietnam War (1955-1975), the Stonewall Riots (1969), Personal Computers (1977), Second Wave Feminism (1960s-1980s), September 11, 2001 attacks, #MeToo (2006), and #BlackLivesMatter (2013). On either side are boxes with information about the thinkers, some of whom have headshots next to their information. Peter Bergman (1929-2017) and Thomas Luckmann (1927-2016) developed the idea of social constructivism and wrote The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (1966). C Wright Mills (1916-1962) is pictured as a serious man with light skin and glasses looking down. His key idea was the sociological imagination, and he wrote The Power Elite (1956). Joe Feagin’s (1938- ) key idea is systemic racism. He wrote Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression (2006). He has light skin, wears glasses, has white hair, and smiles. Angela Davis was born in 1944. She is pictured as a smiling woman with light curly hair and dark skin. She studied the prison industrial complex and queer rights. She wrote Women, Race, and Class (1981) and was part of the abolitionist feminist movement. Gloria E. Anzaldua (a smiling woman with medium skin, dark, short hair and large earrings) lived from 1942-2004. She developed the ideas of la frontera and new tribalism. She wrote Borderlands (1987). Patricia Hill Collins was born in 1948. She is pictured as a woman with dark skin and curly, short, white hair speaking passionately into a microphone. She developed the concepts of interlocking oppressions and the matrix of domination. She wrote Black Feminist Thought (1990) and was part of the intersectionality movement. Judith Butler was born in 1956. They are pictured as a person with short, light hair and skin staring directly at the camera. They developed the ideas that gender is socially constructed and queer theory. They wrote Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990). Gregory Cajete (1952-) stands in front of red rock and has dark skin. He wrote Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence (2000).

Model 2.3: The Scientific Process

This model includes a circle of arrows around the words Scientific Process. The top arrow says Identify a Social Issue or Find a Research Topic and Ask a Question. This points to the next arrow, which says review existing literature and sources. Build a broad understanding of work previously conducted, identify gaps in understanding of the topic, and position your own research to build on prior knowledge. The next arrow says Formulate a Hypothesis: What are the general causes of the phenomenon you’re wondering about? The next arrow says Select a Research Method and Design a Study: Select a research method appropriate to answer your question. Typically, your research question influences the method you will use. The next arrow says Collect data: Collect information on the topic using the research design. The next arrow says Analyze data: Organize and analyze the data after it is collected. If the analysis does or does not support the hypothesis, discuss implications for theory or policy. From here there is an arrow that goes back to Select a Research Method that says Based on findings, what new questions do you have? How can these new questions help develop future projects? Another arrow from Analyze Data continues the circle and says Report Findings: Share results at conferences and in academic journals. Before the conclusions of a study are widely accepted, the studies are often repeated. New research questions may emerge to inspire more research projects. This arrow points back to the top arrow where we started.

Model 2.4: The Interpretive Framework

This model shows six colored boxes on top of an arrow that guides through the steps outlined in the boxes. The boxes read: 1) Find a topic: What do you want to learn more about? 2) Design study: What do you ask? Who do you ask? 3) Collect data: What themes emerge? How should the interviews change? 4) Code data: How can the information best be categorized? 5) Analyze literature: How do other scientists understand or explain the social behavior? 6) Evaluate theory: Does it effectively explain or predict the social behavior?

Model 2.5: Participatory Action Research

This model visualizes the process of participatory action research. The wheel names these categories: 1) Diagnosing, 2) action planning, 3) action taking, 4) evaluating, and 5) learning. 

Poverty and Economic Inequality Chapter

Chart 3.1: Number in Poverty and Poverty Rate, 1959-2023

The top chart shows that the number of people in poverty started around 40 million in 1959, decreasing to well under 25 million in the early 1970s, then rising and falling but will an overall gradual rise until the 2010s when it peaked over 45 million before falling to 36.8 million in 2023. The bottom chart shows that the poverty rate started around 23% in 1959, falling sharply to around 12% in the 1970s, then rising and falling over the years with a rate of 11.1% in 2023. 

Map 3.1: Poverty Rate by Country, 2025

This map illustrates the percentage of people in poverty in 2025 for various countries across the globe, with categories ranging from 10% to 90% and with darker-shaded countries having more poverty. The darkest countries are concentrated in Africa with a couple in Central America. The countries are not named in the map.

Map 3.2: Global Income Inequality Map

This map illustrates income inequality across the globe, wither categories for low income, lower-middle income, upper-middle income, and high income countries. High income countries include the US, Canada, Australia, much of Western Europe, and a few others. Low income countries are concentrated in Africa, with a few others scattered across the globe. The countries are not named in the map. 

Chart 3.2: Poverty and Family Structure, 2023

This chart displays the percent of people below poverty by household structure. The first bar shows the rate for all primary families at 8.3%. The second bar shows the rate for married-couple households at 4.6%. The third bar shows the rate for female householder (no spouse present) at 21.8%. The fourth bar shows the rate for male householder (no spouse present) at 11.4%. 

Chart 3.3: Characteristics of Individuals Living in Poverty, 2018

This pie chart shows the proportion of individuals living in poverty. In the chart, 31% are children, 13% are seniors, 11% are disabled, 8% are caregivers, 7% are students, 4% are early retirees, 2% are unclassified, and 23% are in the labor force. 

Chart 3.4: Number of People in Poverty, 2022-2023

This chart shows the number of people in poverty in both 2022 and 2023 by various characteristics including sex, age, family unit, race/ethnicity, education, and work. Poverty declined from 11.5 to 11.1 million people. In these years, there was statistically significant decrease in poverty for people who were white, women, adults (aged 18 to 64), and with some college education. In contrast, poverty rates grew at a statistically significant rate for people who were mixed race. 

Map 3.3: Average Life Expectancy Across the Globe

This map illustrates the the average age of death for countries across the globe, with red-shaded countries having lower life expectancy. The red-shaded countries are concentrated in Africa with a couple in other areas. The countries are not named in the map.

Chart 3.5: Country Income and Life Expectancy

This chart depicts average life expectancy at birth from 1960 to 2023, with categories for upper-middle-income nations, lower-middle-income nations, low-income nations, and the United States alone. Life expectancy grew for all categories, and the gap between the US and the other categories decreased. Life expectancy for low-income nations was 64.5 years, 76.2 years for upper-middle-income nations, and 78.4 years for the US in 2023.

Chart 3.6: Share of the Population Who Are Undernourished

This chart displays the proportion of undernourished people from 2000 and 2023 by world region, with categories for Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Asia, World, Northern Africa, South-eastern Asia, South America, and Central Asia. Undernourished is defined as, "daily food intake does not provide enough energy to maintain a normal, active, and healthy life." Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rates of undernourishment of any world region by far, followed by Southern Asia. 

Chart 3.7: Literacy Rate of Adults among Nations by Income 

This chart displays adult literacy levels from 1990 to 2023 for nations by income, with categories for low income, lower-middle income, and upper-middle income nations. Literacy rates grew for all categories. Low income nations have a rate of less than 65% whereas upper-middle income nations have a rate higher than 95%, with lower-middle income nations around 78% in 2023. 

Chart 3.8: Share of Income Held by the Middle-class 

This chart displays the percentage of aggregate household income in the US from 1970 to 2020, with categories for lower income, middle income, and upper income households. The share for middle income declined substantially whereas the share for upper income grew substantially. The share for lower income declined slightly. 

Chart 3.9: Family Wealth by Wealth Group

This chart depicts total family wealth in trillions of dollars (using 2022 dollars) from 1989 to 2022, with categories for the top 10%, the 51st to 90th percentiles (combined), and the bottom 50%. Wealth grew substantially for the top 10%, slightly for the 51st-90th, and barely for the bottom 50%. 

Chart 3.10: Change in Wages from the Prior Year, 2019-2025

This chart shows the percent change in wages from the prior year from 2019 to 2025, with categories for the highest earners, upper-middle earners, lower-middle earners, and the lowest earners. All categories had a sharp increase in wage growth from 2021 to 2022, then a sharp decrease from 2023 to 2025. Wage growth was substantially slower for the lowest earners in 2025 at a rate of around 3.6%, while the highest earners experienced the fastest wage growth at a rate of around 4.6%. 

Chart 3.11: Average Annual Change in Household Resources After the 2025 Reconciliation Act

This chart displays the average annual change in resources per household from 2026-2034 relative to the CBO's January 2025 baseline, with categories for each tenth household income group. The highest tenth income group are expected to see their resources increase substantially, whereas other groups have modest increases and the lowest two tenths will see decreases, especially the lowest tenth. 

Neighborhoods and Housing Chapter

Infographic 4.1: Soft Eviction

This student-created trifold pamphlet is on the concept of soft eviction. The text for each section follows: 

• What is soft eviction? Soft eviction is when landlords or property managers pressure tenants to leave without formally evicting them, like by: Raising rent suddenly, failing to make repairs, or making living conditions uncomfortable so tenants leave on their own (Oluwatukesi 2024).
• Examples: Cutting off essentials, gas, water, electricity; Not making repairs causing unsafe living; Sudden rent increases; Harassment
• How many people deal with this? Studies are indicating that over 14 million tenants report the feeling of being pressured to move. Six out of 100 U.S. households were threatened with eviction. Estimates suggest that forced moves due to informal evictions are more than five times as common as forced moves due to formal evictions (Kajeepeta 2025).
• What are the impacts? Causes stress, anxiety, and depression for tenants; Increases the risk of homelessness and unstable housing; Makes it harder to find future housing (eviction records discourage landlords); Hurts financial stability –  lost income, credit damage; Affects community health & equity – marginalized groups face worse outcomes
• How to know if you are being soft evicted: You will know you are being soft evicted when your landlord will not answer your calls to fix things, or when the home is unlivable and they will not fix it. They could also harass you to make you not want to live there. 
• What to do if you’re the victim of soft eviction: Know your rights: Landlords must get a court order to evict you, it’s illegal to force you out otherwise; Document everything: Take pictures, save messages, and keep proof of what’s happening; Get help: Contact Legal Aid of Western Michigan or Michigan Legal Help for free support; Call police if your landlord locks you out or shuts off utilities; Don’t move out unless you feel unsafe – staying protects your rights.

Infographic 4.2: Racist Policies, Inequities, and Ideas

This infographic includes a chart of 3 columns that contain 3 categories: 1) Racist policies (laws and policies), 2) racial inequities (impact and consequences), 3) Racist ideas (rationalization). To demonstrate that racist policies and ideas sustain racial inequities, arrows are used across the columns to show what components reinforce this racist system. The text reads:

• Slavery policies are legal from the 1600s to 1863, leading to enslavement of generations of Black people, which leads to ideas including, savage culture, pagan values, immoral souls, intellectually less, aesthetically inferior, needing direction and saving, shiftless and aimless, unworthy
• Those same racist ideas lead to policies including, de facto policies of segregation of free Black people in the North during the 1830s
• The de facto policies lead to impoverished conditions, drop in property values in impoverished segregated neighborhoods, leading to racist ideas that “black people make property rates go down” which inspires de facto policies, i.e. block busting as creatively shown in the film Raisin in the Sun, wrong side of town
• These racist ideas lead to racist policies like 1930s federally sanctioned redlining, racist conditions, covenants, and restrictions (CC&R’s), exploitive credit and lending policies
• These racist policies lead to lower home values, reduced services, increased poverty, lost generational wealth which leads to racist ideas, driving, walking, or jogging “while Black,” unconditional compliance with police expectation, and preconceived notion about criminality
• These racist ideas lead to racist policies like, racial profiling, increased policing, gentrification
• These racist policies lead to Black people over-represented in housing insecurity statistics, and criminal justice system and Black people have less access to capital to build generational wealth leading back to racist ideas

Chart 4.1: Number of People Experiencing Homelessness

This chart shows the number of people experiencing homelessness from 2007 to 2024, with categories for total, sheltered, and unsheltered. There are more sheltered people than unsheltered people across the time period. All categories increased from 2022-2024, with a steeper increase for sheltered homeless people. 

Chart 4.2: Food Insecurity and Housing insecurity at Two-year and Four-year Colleges

This chart displays the number and percentage of students overall and at two-year and four-year colleges who experienced various levels of food and housing insecurity. The column on the left lists five categories of students in a study: No needs (“Secure”); Food insecure, housing insecure, or homeless (“Insecure”); Food and housing insecure; Housing insecure and homeless; Food insecure and housing. According to the next two columns, at a two-year college, 14,965 or 30 percent of students fit in the first category; 34,111 or 70 percent fit in the second category; 19,021 or 39 percent fit in the third category; 7,846 or 16 percent fit in the fourth category; and 6,485 or 13 percent fit in the fifth category. At a four-year college, 10,179 students or 39 percent fit in the first category; 15,861 or 61 percent fit in the second; 7,723 or 30 percent fit in the third; 2,917 or 11 percent fit in the fourth; and 2,394 or 9 percent fit in the fifth. Overall, 25,144 students in the study, or 33 percent, are “Secure.” 49,972 students, or 67 percent, are “Insecure.” 26,744 students, or 36 percent overall, are food and housing insecure; 10,763 or 14 percent are food insecure and homeless; and 8,879 or 12 percent are “food insecure and housing.”

Chart 4.3: Average Wealth by Race/Ethnicity, 2024

This chart depicts the average wealth by primary race or ethnicity in the fourth quarter of 2024, with categories for Black, Hispanic, and White. White clearly has far more wealth. Black shows average wealth of $352,000, Hispanic of $285,000, and White of $1,544,000. 

Chart 4.4: Household Net Worth by Race, 2021

This chart displays the distribution of household net worth by amount of net worth and race of householder for 2021, with categories for White non-Hispanic and Black. Black householders are far more likely to have zero or negative net worth at 23.6% compared to 8.6% whereas White householders are far more likely to have $1,000,000 or over in net worth at 20.4% compared to 5.3%. 

Crime, Immigration, and Social Control Chapter

Table 5.1: Violent and Property Crime Rates in the NIBRS and the NCVS

This table shows that there are differences in crime rates between the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). It also shows that property crime has higher rates than violent crime and that there are some differences between the years 2021 and 2022. The violent crime rate for 2021 and 2022 (respectively) was 4.00 and 3.98 in the NIBRS and 2.91 and 4.70 in the NCVS. The property crime rate for 2021 and 2022 (respectively) was 19.44 and 20.65 in the NIBRS and 27.82 and 32.44 in the NCVS. 

Chart 5.1: Number of Violent Crimes per 100,000 People, 1990-2023

This trend chart shows that violent crimes decreased substantially between 1990 and 2023. In the early 1990s the rate was between 700 and 800 (per 100,000 people), fell steeply until the early 2000s when it hovered around 500, then fell again until it reached 363.8 in 2023. 

Chart 5.2: Number of Murders in the US, 2018-2025

This trend chart displays the number of total murders in the US from the prior year from 2018 to 2025. In 2018 there were slightly over 8,000 murders, then the number increased to over 11,000 in the early 2020s, then fell steadily to 7,551 murders from June 2024 to May 2025. 

Chart 5.3: Estimated Number of Unauthorized Immigrants in the US by Country of Origin

This pie chart shows the proportion of unauthorized immigrants originating in various nations, using 2022 Office of Homeland Security statistics. Less than half (44%) of unauthorized immigrants originated in Mexico. Other countries of origin include: Guatemala (7%), El Salvador (6%), Honduras (5%), Philippines (3.2%), Venezuela (2.9%), Colombia (2.2%), Brazil (2.1%), India (2%), China (1.9%), and Other (24%). 

Infographic 5.1: Recidivism

This infographic is in the form of a newsletter covering various components of recidivism, including from a personal perspective. The text for each section follows: 

• What is Recidivism?: Recidivism refers to the tendency of a person’s relapse into criminal behavior, typically measured by instances of rearrest, reconviction, and/or return to prison-with or without a new sentence- within 3 years of their release (National Institute of Justice, n.d.). Unfortunately, in the United States, approximately 7 out of 10 former inmates are rearrested within 5 years of their release (James, 2015, as cited in Cowling, 2023, p. 6). An image displays two men sitting and laying on their beds in a prison cell. 
• Recidivism and Age: Looking at the data from the USSC.gov, we can conclude that older people have a lower risk of reoffending again compared to younger people. The percentage difference between the two categories of LT 21 years and GT 60 years is around 51.6% which is the biggest gap between all the others. Just 16.0% of offenders older than 60 years of age at the time of release were rearrested. In comparison, more than two thirds (67.6%) of offenders younger than 21 at the time of release were rearrested.” (United States Sentencing Commission 2016). A chart displays data indicating that rearrest rates decline as individuals get older, with a 67.6% rate for those under 21 years of age and a 16% rate for those over 60 years of age.
• Recidivism and Race: Recidivism rates vary considerably within the nation’s population across different racial and ethnic groups. For instance, the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR, 2023). Authority data indicates that the conviction rates within 3 years for California state prisoners released in fiscal years 2013-2014 were 47.6% for Hispanic/Latino, 46.8% for White, 46.6% for American Indian/Alaskan Native, 45.6% for Black/African American, 40.8% for Asian/Pacific, and 33.5% for Other. For the year 2010, the U.S. Sentencing Commission reported rearrest rates for released offenders at 58.2% for Black, 46.5% for Hispanic, 42.9% for White, and 50.2% for Other racially classified groups (U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2022). Control for risk factors under the PATTERN risk assessment model posited by the Justice Department showed that Asian individuals had about 33% lower odds of recidivism than White offenders, Hispanic 10% lower, and Black individuals are equal to White offenders (OJP, 2022). A chart shows that the conviction rate is higher than the return-to-prison and arrest rates, and that the return-to-prison rate dipped well below the arrest rate around 2010. 
• Recidivism and Gender: In 2012, a total of 408,300 individuals were released from state prisons across 34 states, with approximately 11% of them being women. Among those who committed violent crimes, 55% of the women were rearrested, 38% received a new conviction, and 27% returned to prison within 5 years of release. In comparison, 66% of the men were rearrested, 49% were convicted again, and 43% returned to prison (Durose & Antenangeli, 2023). This data shows that a higher proportion of men than women were rearrested, reconvicted, and reincarnated. A chart shows that men are more likely to be arrested, convicted, and returned to prison than women. 
• A Real Life Look at Recidivism: Hi, my name is Kaylynn, and recidivism is a topic I care deeply about because I’ve experienced its impact firsthand. My older brother, Nick, is 28 years old and has unfortunately spent about a third of his life incarcerated. His first offense occurred at age 15 when he committed a burglary but received little more than a slap on the wrist. A few years later, he committed another burglary and was sentenced to five years of probation. Just a few months after that, he was involved in a third burglary and, at 18, received a four-year prison sentence. After his release, things started off well—he secured a good-paying job and even moved into his own apartment. But over time, he became complacent and slowly slipped back into old habits. This led to him losing his job and cycling in and out of jail multiple times. He remained out of prison for about two years before committing another felony, which resulted in a six-year sentence that he is currently serving. I understand that the basic facts might make Nick appear like a hardened criminal, but I truly believe he is a good person. Many factors contributed to his incarceration, including our parents’ divorce when we were young, growing up in poverty, falling in with the wrong crowd, struggles with addiction, and feeling trapped by the system. All we can do is be of support to him and hope that the next time he comes home, he stays home. An image shows Kaylynn and her brother standing shoulder-to-shoulder with arms folded and slight smiles. 

Chart 5.4: First- and Second-generation Immigrant and US-born Offenses by Age

This chart displays the prevalence of native-born, first-generation, and second-generation offenses of at least 1 crime in the previous 12 months. It shows that first-generation immigrants have a far lower prevalence of offenses, whereas second-generation immigrants have only slightly lower offenses than US-born individuals. Offenses increase for all groups from ages 12 to 16, then decline steadily until age 24 when they near 0%. The peak for native born offenses is 25%, for second-generation offenses is around 24%, and for first-generation offenses is around 17%, all at age 16. 

Chart 5.5: Incarceration Rates of Immigrants and US-born Men, 1870-2019

This trend chart depicts the incarcerate rate (per 100,000 people) for US-born and first-generation immigrant men from 1870 to 2019. US-born men have always had a higher incarcerate rate than first-generation immigrants; however, the disparity increases after 1960, and substantially after 1980. In 2019, US-born men had a rate around 2,600 and first-generation immigrant men around 1,100. 

Chart 5.6: International Rates of Incarceration

This chart shows rates of incarceration among various countries. Cuba leads at a rate of 794, followed by Rwanda at 637, and the US at 531. Other nations include: Brazil (390), Russia (300), South Africa (258), Colombia (198), Mexico (174), England and Wales (145), China (119), France (109), Canada (88), Switzerland (73), Germany (67), and India (41). 

Chart 5.7: Criminal History of Immigrants Arrested by ICE, 2025

This chart shows the criminal history of immigrants arrested by ICE in the US and various areas of the nation in 2025, with categories for violent conviction, any past conviction, pending criminal charge, and no criminal charges. In that order, in the US the breakdown is 7%, 37%, 30%, and 33%. In LA it is 6%, 29%, 14%, and 57%. In DC it is 2%, 8%, 9%, and 84%. In Massachusetts it is 2%, 10%, 28%, and 63%. In Illinois it is 3%, 17%, 18%, and 66%. 

Chart 5.8: US (State and Federal) Prison Population, 1925-2022

This trend chart displays the US incarceration rate for both state and federal prisons (but not jails) from 1925 to 2022. The population was very low (around 100,000-200,000) from 1925 to the late 1970s, before increasing substantially in the 1980s, 1900s, and 2000s to a high of over 1.5 million. The rate then began to decline in the 2010s, with a rate of around 1.25 million in 2022.