3.1: Theories of Motivation

“Black-headed weaver (Ploceus cucullatus bohndorffi) male nest building”, by Charles J. Sharp is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

Introduction: Exploring Your Inner Motivation

Consider one of the college courses you currently are taking. Do you find the course interesting or valuable? Do you think you will do well in the course? Have you had academic experiences in the past where you have performed poorly? Do you feel like you have the resources to succeed? All of these factors can impact your motivation.

As we mentioned in our introduction, nearly 40% of undergraduates do not finish college¹. These statistics are even more stark for community college students who average a 42% completion rate². Part-time community college students are the most at risk of withdrawing because they are often first-generation college students who are balancing school with their jobs and caring for dependents. In our experiences as instructors, we have seen students trying to balance school with seemingly impossible levels of responsibilities and challenges. Yet the students who were most able to persevere and reach their goals always had high levels of motivation. They believed in their ability to succeed, took personal responsibility for their outcomes, and learned from their failures. In this chapter we will explore your inner motivation and discuss strategies to increase motivation.

Theories of Motivation

The research on motivation is extensive, and there are numerous theories to understand why and how we are motivated. Three components that are consistent in many of these theories are a person’s belief in their ability, a person’s expectations of success or failure, and a person’s sense of control over their outcomes ³. Researchers Eccles & Wigfield assert that these three components directly influence a person’s answer to the question: “Can I do this task?” If the answer is "yes," then you are more likely to be successful and further motivated to attempt challenging tasks. Let's take a closer look at these three components.

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is your belief in your own ability to succeed in reaching a goal ⁴. Students who have high self-efficacy are more persistent in reaching their goals, and they also are more resilient when they face failure ⁵. Self-efficacy is different from self-esteem which is how good you feel about yourself. Self-efficacy is your belief in your ability to accomplish something.

For example, Marc was frustrated that he had to take an English class for his degree and didn't believe he was able to be successful. He struggled with writing papers in high school, and he knew he "just wasn't good at writing." When Marc received a failing grade on his first paper, he stopped attending class and thought to himself "what's the point?" Marc lacked self-efficacy; he did not believe he was able to succeed and when faced with challenges, he was unable to remain motivated.

Take another student, Gina, who also struggled with writing. Gina believed, however, that she could be successful if she worked hard and got help from tutoring. When Gina received a low grade on her paper, she was frustrated, but she knew the class was important and still believed she could be successful. After class she went straight to tutoring to review her mistakes and get suggestions for improvement. Her self-efficacy allowed her to push through her failure and continue towards her goal.

PRO TIP:

Tutoring isn't just for help when you need it and are struggling- it's also there for reinforcement, validation, and confidence-building.

- Cathy Rosenkrans, former Assistant Director of Tutoring

Mindset

Dr. Carol Dweck, a researcher at Stanford University, introduced the concept of growth versus fixed mindsets in 2006.⁶ People with a fixed mindset believe that we are born with certain abilities and skills which cannot be changed or improved upon. In contrast, people with a growth mindset believe that with effort and persistence, we can increase our abilities and skills in any area.

The chart below demonstrates the differences between the fixed and growth mindsets:

Table - Fixed and Growth Mindsets

Fixed Mindset	Growth Mindset
I am so bad at biology, and I will never understand the subject.	I will get tutoring for my biology class this semester so that I can raise my test scores.
I am a horrible writer.	I will practice my writing daily and seek help from my instructor or the Writing Center to improve.
I have never been good with technology. I am going to fail this online class.	I am going to watch some tutorial videos so I understand how to navigate my online class better. If I still do not understand, I will ask my instructor.

In terms of our academic choices, knowing that we have control over most of our outcomes is freeing. When we do poorly on an exam or an assignment, we have the power to study more next time, seek out free tutoring or ask our instructor for help. Choosing these “growth” actions will help us to be successful students.

“Growth Mindset” by EmployID Academy is licensed under CC0

Another theory of mindset is called "Victim-Creator." Individuals with a growth mindset also are referred to as “Creators.” Creators demonstrate the following behaviors ⁷:

• Take responsibility for their actions
• Get help from those more skilled
• See failures as an opportunity to learn something new
• When they fail, they try something new
• Do not give up easily

In contrast, individuals with a fixed mindset are referred to as “Victims.” Victims demonstrate the following behaviors ⁸:

• Blame others for their actions
• Give up when faced with challenges or obstacles
• Focus on their weaknesses
• Have self-sabotaging behaviors
• Do not believe in themselves

Locus of Control

Since self-efficacy involves believing you have control over your own success and failure, and people with a growth mindset view obstacles and setbacks as opportunities to learn, the idea of locus of control is an important part of this discussion. People with an internal locus of control believe they are in control or are the cause of their success based on their own effort or ability. People with an external locus of control believe outside forces, such as luck or fate, determine their success. Research has shown that people who have an internal locus of control are more motivated and more likely to succeed ⁹.

Their expectation of success also is directly related to the extent they feel in control of their own success and failure ¹⁰.

In the example explained earlier on this page, Marc had an external locus of control believing there was nothing he could do; he "just wasn't good at writing." In Gina's case, she had an internal locus of control; she believed she could improve her writing ability with hard work and help from tutoring.

Personal Responsibility

There is much power in believing that we have control over many of the choices and outcomes that we experience in our lives. Of course, there will be events that are out of our control. For the purposes of this discussion, we are concentrating on those events over which we do have control. F For example, a pandemic is entirely beyond our control — none of us are responsible for it happening. However, how we choose to respond to the pandemic is within our control. Personal responsibility involves choices and focuses on making good decisions which help to further our personal and professional goals. Here is another story about two students to illustrate the concept of personal responsibility.

Erica is taking nine credits this semester. She works 20 hours a week and also has three children ages four, six and ten. Her life is very hectic, and when she decided to go back to school, she was not even sure how she would fit everything in. At the start of the semester, Erica made a plan that allows her to fit in a little school work and study time each day. She wakes up at 5 AM Monday through Friday to allow herself to get two hours of schoolwork in before her kids wake up.

Ronnie is taking 12 credits this semester. He does not work or have children. He is finding himself falling behind in his classes because he spends a lot of time playing video games and scrolling through social media. He does not have a concrete plan for how he approaches completing his schoolwork, and he often procrastinates and waits until the last minute to complete assignments.

Looking at both of these students, which one would you say shows greater personal responsibility? Who seems to be taking control of the situation and making choices that move them closer to achieving their goals? The answer is easy to see - Erica is. Even though Erica has much more on her plate than Ronnie, she is making choices that put her in a better situation. She is choosing to make school a priority. She is taking responsibility for herself by waking up early and completing schoolwork. With all that Erica has on her plate, she easily could make excuses. However, Erica knows that excuses do not help anything and only bring temporary gratification.

Although Ronnie and Erica are not real people, their stories reflect students' experiences every day. Some students make choices that lead them on a path to success, while other students self-sabotage by making destructive choices. Successful students take personal responsibility for their actions and believe that their success in college is within their control.

PRO TIP:

Time management is the key to success. Take out your phone on day one. Schedule 1 hour a day for 6 days a week (do this for each class you are taking). Have your phone notify you when the time approaches. Leave your phone in another room when it goes off so you don't get distracted. Work completely on HACC for that one hour. Within 10 days you will have created a habit of studying for 6 hours a week.

- Kristy Vukoder, Adjunct Instructor, Foundational Studies and Assistant Director, High School Partnerships

Expectancy and Value

Many things can impact your motivation including your goals, sense of self-efficacy, and sense of control over your actions. Two additional aspects of motivation are your expectation of success and the value you place on a goal. This theory is referred to as expectancy-value theory and can be seen as the formula: Expectation x Value = Motivation ¹¹. In this theory, expectation refers to how you think you will perform on a particular task or goal ¹². How you perceive yourself and how you perceive the challenge of the task will influence your expectation of success ¹³. Additionally, your value will influence how appealing the goal is and how motivated you are to achieve the goal ¹⁴.

In the self-efficacy example explained earlier on this page, Marc had a low expectation of success and low value of the class so his motivation was also low. In Gina's case she had a higher expectation of succeeding in the class and knew the class was valuable to her so her motivation was much higher.

¹National Center for Education Statistics. (2020). The condition of Education. National Center for Education Statistics The Condition of Education [nces.ed.gov]

² National Center for Education Statistics. (2020). The condition of Education. National Center for Education Statistics The Condition of Education [nces.ed.gov]

³ Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi-org.ezproxy.hacc.edu/10.....100901.135153.

⁴ Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman

⁵ Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

⁶ Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Random House.

7 Downing, S. (2008). On course: Strategies for creating success in college and in life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

⁸ Downing, S. (2008). On course: Strategies for creating success in college and in life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

⁹ Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi-org.ezproxy.hacc.edu/10.....100901.135153.

¹⁰ Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi-org.ezproxy.hacc.edu/10.....100901.135153.

¹¹ Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy--value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi-org.ezproxy.hacc.edu/10....ceps.1999.1015.

¹² Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi-org.ezproxy.hacc.edu/10.....100901.135153.

¹³ Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi-org.ezproxy.hacc.edu/10.....100901.135153.

¹⁴ Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi-org.ezproxy.hacc.edu/10.....100901.135153.