12.4: Latin America Revolutions

Simon Bolivar Central Park NYC Source: Wikipedia

The Independence of Latin America

The American and French Revolutions stirred independence movements in other parts of the world. A growing spirit of nationalism and the French ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity inspired many Latin Americans to rise up against their French, Spanish, and Portuguese masters. Though mostly successful, these movements would also bring an increase in poverty, and the dream of a united Latin America would quickly fall apart.

Social Structure in Latin America Source: Moore Public Schools

Latin American Society

The term Latin America applies to the lands south of the United States where Spanish, Portuguese, and French are spoken. All these languages developed from Latin. Generally, the region includes Mexico, Central America, South America, and islands of the Caribbean. On the surface, the Latin American revolutions of the early 1800s appear similar to the American Revolution. In every case, revolutionaries overthrew a government controlled by a European country. Then, the leaders of the revolution set up a new national government.

However, there were important differences between conditions in Latin America and in the United States. In Latin America, colonial society was sharply divided into classes based on birth. Struggles among these classes played an important part in the revolutions.

• At the top of Latin American society were the peninsulares, people who had been born in Spain or Portugal. They held the most important positions in colonial government and in the Roman Catholic Church.
• Creoles ranked next, and were born in Latin America but whose ancestors came from Europe. This class included many wealthy landowners and lesser government officials. The peninsulares and the creoles formed an aristocracy in Latin American society. Together, they made up less than one-fifth of the population.
• The common people had few political rights and little share in the region’s wealth. This group included mestizos, mulattoes, blacks, and Indians. Mestizos were people of mixed European and Indian ancestry. Mulattoes were of European and African ancestry. Some mestizos and mulattoes owned small farms or businesses, others rented small farms from landlords. Most blacks worked as slaves on large plantations, although there were free blacks in many towns. Millions of Indians were legally free, but they were usually treated no better than slaves.

A Revolution in Haiti

The first colony to free itself from European rule was the French colony of Saint Domingue on the island of Hispaniola. Almost all of the people who lived in the colony were slaves of African origin. In 1791, about 100,000 rose in revolt. Toussaint L’Ouverture, an ex-slave, soon emerged as a leader. By 1801, he had moved to the eastern part of the island and freed the slaves there. In 1804, the former colony declared itself the independent country of Haiti.

South American Independence

Elsewhere in Latin America, creoles took the lead in the battle for independence. Peninsulares held almost all the high government offices in Spain’s Latin American lands and kept tight control over the economy of its colonies. Merchants in Spanish colonies could trade only with Spain. Likewise, all their goods could only be sent on Spanish ships. In addition, the valuable mines of Mexico and Peru were under direct Spanish control, which the creoles resented.

However, the direct cause of the Latin American revolts was Napoleon’s conquest of Spain in 1808, and placing his brother, Joseph, as the king of Spain. Many creoles might have remained loyal to a Spanish king, but they felt no loyalty at all to a Frenchman placed on the Spanish throne by force.

Fighting broke out in 1810 in several parts of Latin America. Loyalties were divided. The viceroys and their armies remained loyal to Spain, as did some creoles. Indians and mestizos fought on both sides, often forced into armies against their will.

Two leaders emerged. Simon Bolivar was a writer, fighter, and political thinker. He survived defeats and exile to win independence for Venezuela in 1821. Jose de San Martin helped win independence for Argentina in 1816 and Chile in 1818. Bolivar led their combined armies to a great victory in 1824 that gave independence to all the former Spanish colonies.

Bolivar declared Venezuela’s independence from Spain in 1811, but the struggle seesawed back and forth. Bolivar built up an army from many sources. He promised to end slavery, winning many black volunteers. He also recruited Europeans. In January 1819, Bolivar led his 2,500 soldiers on a daring march through the towering Andes into what is now Columbia. Coming from this unexpected direction, he took the Spanish army completely by surprise in Bogota and defeated them. Bolivar went on to free Venezuela in 1821. Next, he marched into Ecuador.

Meanwhile the other great hero of the independence movement, Jose de San Martin was freeing the south. After declaring Argentina’s independence in 1816, his army freed Chile in 1817 after a grueling march across the Andes. Next, San Martin took his soldiers north by sea to Lima, Peru, in 1821. The Spanish army retreated into the mountains of Peru. To drive them out, San Martin needed a much larger force. Otherwise, the Spaniards would remain a threat to all of independent South America. Thus, the need for San Martin and Bolivar to meet at Guayaquil, Ecuador.

No one knows how the two men reached an agreement. But San Martin left his army for Bolivar to command. Soon after, San Martin sailed for Europe, dying almost forgotten on French soil in 1850. Bolivar followed the Spaniards into the heights of the Andes. His forces defeated the Spanish army at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, which was the last major battle of the war for independence.

In Brazil, independence took a different turn. When Napoleon’s armies entered Portugal in 1807, the royal family escaped to Brazil, its largest colony. For the next 14 years, it would be the center of the Portuguese empire. By the time Napoleon was defeated, the people of Brazil wanted their independence. In 1822, 8,000 creoles signed a paper asking the son of Portugal’s king to rule an independent Brazil. He agreed, and Brazil became free through a bloodless revolt.

Mexican Independence

In Mexico, ethnic and racial groups mixed more freely. Unlike the other Latin American revolutionary movements, Indians and mestizos played the leading role. Also, whereas in most countries the revolution began in the cities, in Mexico it began in the countryside.

On September 16, 1810, Father Miguel Hidalgo, a priest from the mountain village of Dolores, called on Indian peasants of his parish to rebel against their Spanish masters. Today, that call is known as the grito de Dolores (the cry of Dolores). This group began a 200 mile march toward Mexico City, armed with sickles, stones, and clubs, picking up thousands of new recruits and weapons along the way. Creole landlords fled for their lives. Soon, Hidalgo had a force of 60,000 men behind him. He declared an end to slavery and called for other reforms.

In Mexico City, the main Spanish army and the creoles joined forces against Hidalgo’s army. Hidalgo was betrayed by one of his officers, captured, and executed by a firing squad.

The rebels found another strong leader in Jose Maria Morelos, who proved to be a far better general than Hidalgo had been. His goals were to set up a democratic government, tax the wealthy, and distribute lands to the peasants. By 1813, his army controlled all of Mexico except for the largest cities. In that same year, Mexico was declared an independent republic by its congress.

Many creoles supported the idea of independence, but they were not willing to accept Morelos’ social reforms. A creole officer, Augustin de Iturbide, captured and executed Morelos in 1815. A few scattered groups of rebels fought on as guerrillas.

Suddenly, events took a new turn. In 1820, a revolution in Spain put a new group in power. Mexico’s creoles feared that this Spanish government would take away their privileges. At once, the creoles united in support of independence. Iturbide made peace with the last guerrilla leader, proclaimed Mexico independent in 1821, and eventually made himself emperor. Not long afterward, he was ousted from power. When he tried to return to power in 1824, he was shot.

Caudillos Dominate Governments

By 1830, Latin America was home to 16 independent countries, but many citizens had few political freedoms. All the countries were dominated by a small group of wealthy Creole aristocrats. Army leaders had come to power during the long struggle with Spain, and they continued to control Latin America after independence. Indeed, nearly all the countries of Latin America were run by caudillos. (Caudillos were political strongmen, usually army officers, who ruled as dictators.) Many caudillos cared only for their own power and wealth, and did little to improve the lives of the common people. Changes of government most often took place at bayonet-point, as one caudillo was forced to give way to another.

Throughout Latin America, independence actually brought an increase in poverty, as turmoil continued in the region. The wars had disrupted trade and devastated cities and the countryside. After all the destruction, the dream of a united Latin America quickly fell apart. In South America, Bolivar’s united Gran Colombia divided into Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela in early 1830. And by 1841, the United Provinces of Central America had split into the republics of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras.

The Monroe Doctrine

In one way, Lain America was luckier than other nonindustrial parts of the world. Despite the political confusion, Latin America was never again carved into colonies as Africa and Asia were in the late 1800s. Having won independence, Latin America succeeded in keeping it.

Spain had not given up hope of winning back its colonies. In addition, France saw a chance to take over land in Latin America. However, both Britain and the United States were determined not to allow such a development.

In 1823, U.S. President James Monroe announced “the American continents …. Are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.” This statement is known as the Monroe Doctrine. Some questioned if the United States was strong enough to enforce the Monroe Doctrine.

Great Britain wanted to protect Latin American independence for economic reasons. During the wars for independence, many Latin American countries began trading with Britain rather than with Spain. British banks and businesses invested heavily in South America, especially in Argentina and Brazil.

In the end, both countries were happy with the economic advantages they gained from Latin American independence.

Attribution: Material taken and modified from CK-12 7.3 Latin American Independence