15.1: Background to the War

By the beginning of the 20th century, a great rivalry existed between Europe's "great powers". This term meant that specific countries (generally considered to be Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Germany) were able to command large armies, maintain significant economies and industrial bases, and conquer and hold global empires. Their respective leaders, and many of the regular citizens, were fundamentally suspicious of one another. The biggest worry of the political leadership was that one country would come to dominate the others. Long gone was the notion of the balance of power as a guarantor of peace. Now, each of the great powers sought to supplant its rivals in the name of security and prosperity. As a result, there was an ongoing, elaborate diplomatic dance as each power tried to shore up alliances, seize territory around the globe, and outpace the others.

Figure 7.1.1: Once the war began, the Triple Entente of Russia, France, and Britain faced the Central Powers of Germany and Austria. Italy was initially allied with the Central Powers but abandoned them once the war began, switching sides to join the Entente in 1915.

The thing that inflamed jingoism (extreme patriotism) and resentment among the great powers had been imperialism. The British were determined to maintain their enormous empire at any cost, and the Germans now posed a threat with its newly strengthened navy. The great powers constantly bickered over their colonies, especially in Africa and Asia. Violence in the colonies was almost always directed at the native peoples, with the balance of power squarely on the side of Europeans. Thus, even European soldiers overseas had no experience of facing foes armed with comparable weapons.

The nature of nationalism had changed significantly. For example, to be a good Englishman was to resent and fear the growth of Germany. Many Germans came to despise the Russians, in part to the growth of anti-Slavic racism. The lesser powers of Europe, like Italy, resented their own status and wanted to seize enough power to join the ranks of the great powers. By 1914, nationalism was nothing like the optimistic, utopian movements of the nineteenth century; it was hostile, fearful, and aggressive.

Public opinion mattered since every one of the great powers had some form of representative government. (In 1905, Russia saw the creation of an elected parliament, the Duma, and an open press.) Newspapers tended to deliberately inflame patriotic passions rather than encourage rational calculation. Patriotic loyalty was often connected with a willingness to fight, kill, and die for one’s country. Journalism whipped up opinions and passions by stoking hatred, fear, and resentment, which led to a more widespread willingness to go to war.

The great powers sought to shore up their security and power through alliances. By 1914, an alliance obligated military action if any one power should be attacked. The willingness to go to war for the sake of alliance meant that even a relatively minor event might spark the outbreak of total war. That is precisely what happened.

By 1914, alliances had set the stage for the war.

• German politicians, fearing the possibility of a two-front war against France and Russia simultaneously, concluded an alliance with the Austrian Empire in 1879.
• France and Russia created a strong alliance in 1893 in large part to contain the ambitions of Germany, whose territory lay between them.
• Great Britain was generally more friendly to France than Germany, but had not entered into a formal alliance with any other power. It was, however, the traditional ally and protector of Belgium.
• Russia grew increasingly close to the new nation of Serbia, populated by a Slavic people who were part of the Eastern Orthodox branch of Christianity.

In the summer of 1914, each of the great powers reached the conclusion that war was inevitable, and that trying to stay out of the immanent conflict would lead to national decline. Germany was surrounded by potential enemies in France and Russia. France had cultivated a desire for revenge against Germany ever since the Franco-Prussian War. Russia feared German power and resented Austria for threatening the interests of Slavs in the Balkans. Great Britain alone had no vested interest in war, but it was unable to stay out of the conflict once it began.

East Asian countries also had reasons to enter the way. Japan had to honor an agreement made with England in 1902 and also wanted to gain territories in the Pacific that had been held by Germany. Meanwhile, China sought to regain control over the vital Shantung Peninsula and reassert its strength before Japan.

All of the great European powers could field forces of a million men or more. In the past, political leaders had often either led troops themselves or at least had significant influence in planning and tactics. By the early 20th century, war plans and tactics were entirely in the hands of the general staffs, meaning political leaders would be obliged to choose from a limited set of "pre-packaged" options given to them by their generals.

Thus, when the war started... According to the general staff, it was all or nothing: either commit all forces to a swift and decisive victory, or suffer a certain defeat. There could be no small incremental build-ups or tentative skirmishes; this was about a total commitment to a massive war. An old adage has it that “generals fight the last war,” basing their tactics on what worked in previous conflicts. In 1914, the “last war” would have been the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), which Prussia had won through swift, decisive action and overwhelming force.

The die was cast.