1.1: Communication - History and Forms

Learning Objectives

• Define communication.
• Discuss a brief history of communication.
• List the five forms of communication.
• Distinguish among the five forms of communication.

Before we dive into the history of communication, it is important that we have a shared understanding of what we mean by the word communication. For our purposes in this book, we will define communication as the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts.

A Brief History of Communication

Our focus in this book is on human communication. Even though all animals communicate, as human beings we have a special capacity to use symbols to communicate about things outside our immediate temporal and spatial reality (Dance & Larson). The ability to think outside our immediate reality is what allows us to create elaborate belief systems, art, philosophy, and academic theories.

The earliest period of human communication, the “Talking Era” (180,000 BCE–3500 BCE), relied on speech and gestures (Poe, 2011). This gave way to the “Manuscript Era,” when writing emerged to support growing needs like recordkeeping and governance. Literacy remained limited to elites until the 1800s. The “Print Era” began with the invention of the printing press, enabling mass production of texts. This was followed by the “Audiovisual Era,” marked by technologies like radio, telephone, and television. Since 1990, the “Internet Era” has brought rapid global communication through digital media.

The study of communication dates back to ancient Greece, with Aristotle providing one of the earliest systematic studies of rhetoric—persuasive and ethical speaking. Though the word “rhetoric” is sometimes used negatively today, it originally emphasized responsible and effective communication. From early on, communication has been closely tied to ethics and civic life. As a formal academic field, communication studies emerged just over a century ago. In 1914, speech teachers formed what became the National Communication Association. Some focused on content and argumentation, while others emphasized delivery and performance—interests still present in areas like public speaking and theatre. Over time, scholars shifted focus from just messages to the role of the communicator. James A. Winans emphasized two reasons to learn public speaking: to succeed and to serve others (Keith, 2008). With the rise of social psychology, communication studies expanded to include social and psychological contexts.

Today, communication departments explore a wide range of topics—from political speeches and media coverage to family communication and cultural narratives—reflecting the depth and diversity of the field.

Forms of Communication

The five main forms of communication are intrapersonal/self, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication. In the following we will discuss the similarities and differences among each form of communication, including its definition, level of intentionality, goals, and contexts.

Intrapersonal/Self Communication

Intrapersonal or self-communication is communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Intrapersonal communication is triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for example, communicate with ourself about what we want to eat due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react intrapersonally to an event we witness. Unlike other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication takes place only inside our heads. The other forms of communication must be perceived by someone else to count as communication.

Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization, or talking to ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment (Dance & Larson, 1972). For example, a person may use self-talk to calm himself down in a stressful situation, or a shy person may remind herself to smile during a social event. Intrapersonal communication also helps build and maintain our self-concept. We also use “self-talk” to let off steam, process emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the future. Competent intrapersonal communication helps facilitate social interaction and can enhance our well-being. Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to intrapersonally communicate is associated with mental illness (Dance & Larson, 1972).

Sometimes we intrapersonally communicate for the fun of it. For example, you might daydream about winning the lottery, replay a funny moment from earlier in the day, or imagine how you’d respond in a fictional scenario. We also communicate intrapersonally to pass time, such as when you silently narrate what you’re doing while completing a routine task or mentally wander while waiting in line. In both of these cases, self-communication is usually unplanned and doesn’t include a clearly defined goal (Dance & Larson, 1972).

We can, however, engage in more intentional intrapersonal communication. For instance, you might mentally rehearse what you want to say before an interview, plan out how you’ll handle a difficult conversation, or reflect on how your actions affected someone else. In fact, deliberate self-reflection can help us become more competent communicators as we become more mindful of our own behaviors. Your internal voice may praise you for speaking up, question a decision you made, or gently remind you to stay calm in a stressful moment. Intrapersonal communication is not created with the intention that another person will perceive it. In all the other levels, the fact that the communicator anticipates consumption of their message is very important.

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other forms of communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts.

Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive, it is usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than self-communication. Interpersonal communication is more goal oriented than self-communication and fulfills instrumental and relational needs. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may be as minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be in a committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication meets relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship. Instances of miscommunication and communication conflict most frequently occur here (Dance & Larson, 1972). To be a competent interpersonal communicator, you need strong skills in conflict management, listening, and other areas to maintain positive relationships.

Group Communication

Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. Group work in an academic setting provides useful experience and preparation for group work in professional settings. Organizations have been moving toward more team-based work models, and whether we like it or not, groups are an integral part of people’s lives.

Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Individuals in a group are often assigned to their position within a group. Group communication is often task-focused, meaning that members of the group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group. Since group members also communicate with and relate to each other interpersonally and may have preexisting relationships or develop them during the course of group interaction, elements of interpersonal communication occur within group communication too.

Public Communication

Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience. Public speaking is something that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like group communication, public speaking is an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared to interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so far.

Mass Communication

Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media. Radio, podcasts, and books are other examples of mass media. The technology required to send mass communication messages distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A certain amount of intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since it usually requires one or more extra steps to convey the message. The intentionality and goals of the person actually creating the message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, can vary greatly.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Technological advances such as the printing press, television, and the more recent digital revolution have made mass communication a prominent feature of our daily lives. Savannah River Site – Atmospheric Technology – CC BY 2.0.

Unlike interpersonal, group, and public communication, there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in mass communication. New media technologies like TikTok, blogs, and X, make feedback more immediate. The technology to mass-produce and distribute communication messages brings with it the power for one voice or a series of voices to reach and affect many people. The potential consequences of unethical mass communication are important to consider.