Provide examples of types of nonverbal communication that fall under these categories.
Discuss the ways in which personal presentation and environment provide nonverbal cues.
Just as verbal language is broken up into various categories, there are also different types of nonverbal communication. As we learn about each type of nonverbal signal, keep in mind that nonverbals often work in concert with each other, combining to repeat, modify, or contradict the verbal message being sent.
Kinesics
The word kinesics comes from the root word kinesis, which means “movement,” and refers to the study of hand, arm, body, and face movements. Specifically, this section will outline the use of gestures, head movements and posture, eye contact, and facial expressions as nonverbal communication.
Gestures
There are three main types of gestures: adaptors, emblems, and illustrators (Andersen, 1999). Adaptors are touching behaviors and movements that indicate internal states typically related to arousal or anxiety. Adaptors can be targeted toward the self, objects, or others. In regular social situations, adaptors result from uneasiness, anxiety, or a general sense that we are not in control of our surroundings. Many of us subconsciously click pens, shake our legs, or engage in other adaptors during classes, meetings, or while waiting as a way to do something with our excess energy. Smartphones have become common object adaptors, as people can fiddle with their phones to help ease anxiety. Finally, as noted, other adaptors are more common in social situations than in public speaking situations given the speaker’s distance from audience members. Other adaptors involve adjusting or grooming others, similar to how primates like chimpanzees pick things off each other.
Emblems are gestures that have a specific agreed-on meaning. These are still different from the signs used by hearing-impaired people or others who communicate using American Sign Language (ASL). Even though they have a generally agreed-on meaning, they are not part of a formal sign system like ASL that is explicitly taught to a group of people. A hitchhiker’s raised thumb, the “OK” sign with thumb and index finger connected in a circle with the other three fingers sticking up, and the raised middle finger are all examples of emblems that have an agreed-on meaning or meanings with a culture. Emblems can be still or in motion; for example, circling the index finger around at the side of your head says “He or she is crazy,” or rolling your hands over and over in front of you says “Move on.”
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Emblems are gestures that have a specific meaning. In the United States, a thumbs-up can mean “I need a ride” or “OK!” "Thumbs Up" (CC BY-SA 2.0; Kreg Steppe via Flickr)
Illustrators are the most common type of gesture and are used to illustrate the verbal message they accompany. For example, you might use hand gestures to indicate the size or shape of an object. Unlike emblems, illustrators do not typically have meaning on their own and are used more subconsciously than emblems. These largely involuntary and seemingly natural gestures flow from us as we speak but vary in terms of intensity and frequency based on context. Although we are never explicitly taught how to use illustrative gestures, we do it automatically. Think about how you still gesture when having an animated conversation on the phone even though the other person can’t see you.
Head Movements and Posture
I group head movements and posture together because they are often both used to acknowledge others and communicate interest or attentiveness. In terms of head movements, a head nod is a universal sign of acknowledgement in cultures where the formal bow is no longer used as a greeting. In these cases, the head nod essentially serves as an abbreviated bow. An innate and almost universal head movement is the head shake back and forth to signal “no.” This nonverbal signal begins at birth, even before a baby has the ability to know that it has a corresponding meaning. Babies shake their head from side to side to reject attempts to spoon-feed (Pease & Pease, 2004). This biologically based movement then sticks with us to be a recognizable signal for “no.” We also move our head to indicate interest. For example, a head up typically indicates an engaged or neutral attitude, a head tilt indicates interest and is an innate submission gesture that exposes the neck and subconsciously makes people feel more trusting of us, and a head down signals a negative or aggressive attitude (Pease & Pease, 2004).
There are four general human postures: standing, sitting, squatting, and lying down (Hargie, 2011). Within each of these postures there are many variations, and when combined with particular gestures or other nonverbal cues they can express many different meanings. Most of our communication occurs while we are standing or sitting. One interesting standing posture involves putting our hands on our hips and is a nonverbal cue that we use subconsciously to make us look bigger and show assertiveness. When the elbows are pointed out, this prevents others from getting past us as easily and is a sign of attempted dominance or a gesture that says we’re ready for action. In terms of sitting, leaning back often shows informality and indifference, straddling a chair can be a sign of dominance (but also some insecurity because the person is protecting the vulnerable front part of his or her body), and leaning forward indicates interest and attentiveness (Pease & Pease, 2004).
Eye Contact
We also communicate through eye behaviors, primarily eye contact. While eye behaviors are often studied under the category of kinesics, they have their own branch of nonverbal studies called oculesics, which comes from the Latin word oculus, meaning “eye.” The face and eyes are the main point of focus during communication, and along with our ears our eyes take in most of the communicative information around us. The saying “The eyes are the window to the soul” is actually accurate in terms of where people typically think others are “located,” which is right behind the eyes (Andersen, 1999). To better understand oculesics, we will discuss the characteristics and functions of eye contact and pupil dilation.
Eye contact serves multiple communicative functions. It regulates interaction by signaling when to speak or listen. Speakers often glance away while talking and return eye contact near the end of a turn, while listeners maintain steadier eye contact to show attention.
It also helps monitor interaction by providing feedback about engagement, confusion, or disinterest, and it conveys information: looking away often signals cognitive processing, while direct eye contact shows attentiveness.
Finally, eye contact communicates relational meaning. Depending on culture and context, it may signal connection, intimidation, flirtation, or a desire to avoid interaction.
Facial Expressions
The face is the most expressive part of the body, and basic emotions such as happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust are recognizable across cultures. While these expressions are largely universal, cultural norms influence when and how they are displayed. For example, babies naturally show joy and surprise, but as people grow, they learn display rules that shape how emotions are expressed.
Smiles are especially powerful communicative signals. Many smiles are social rather than emotional, serving to build connection rather than reflect true feelings. Genuine smiles—sometimes called “smiles with the eyes”—are difficult to fake because they involve involuntary muscles around the eyes. People can usually tell the difference, which is why genuine smiles are perceived as warmer and more credible.
Facial expressions are also important in public speaking. They help set the emotional tone of a speech, signal friendliness and confidence, and shape how an audience judges credibility and competence. Expressions should match the content of the speech: animated smiles and bright eyes support humor or light topics, while serious expressions reinforce somber messages. Inconsistent expressions and content, however, can confuse audiences and reduce a speaker’s effectiveness.
Figure 4.2.2 Universal Facial Expressions
Haptics
Touch, studied under haptics, is a powerful form of nonverbal communication. It can comfort, persuade, or build connection, but it can also threaten when associated with sex or violence. Because touch is so influential, competence in its use is essential. A firm handshake, for example, can enhance impressions of confidence, while inappropriate touch can damage relationships or even result in legal consequences. Research shows that brief, appropriate touches can increase positive evaluations, generosity, and compliance.
Scholars identify several types of touch (Heslin & Apler, 1983):
Functional-professional: goal-oriented and expected in professional settings (e.g., doctors, hairstylists).
Social-polite: used to initiate interactions and show respect (e.g., handshakes, pats on the arm).
Friendship-warmth: communicates closeness and care but may also create ambiguity about intent.
Love-intimacy: expresses strong connection, often among close family, friends, or romantic partners (e.g., hugs, hand-holding).
Sexual-arousal: the most intimate form, intended to physically stimulate.
Touch also occurs in other contexts such as play, conflict, or accidental contact, each carrying its own meaning. Because touch is both powerful and nuanced, its interpretation depends on context, relationship, and culture.
Vocalics/Paralanguage
Vocalics or Paralanguage refers to the vocal but nonverbal aspects of communication, such as pitch, volume, rate, tone, and verbal fillers. These elements shape how messages are understood and interpreted.
Pitch helps convey meaning and regulate conversation. Rising pitch often signals a question, while falling pitch signals closure. Sarcasm, for example, is usually communicated through pitch and tone rather than words alone.
Volume communicates intensity and varies by setting, relationship, and distance. Loudness may show excitement or anger, while a soft voice may signal secrecy or intimacy.
Rate influences impressions of credibility and intelligence. Speaking too slowly may bore listeners, while speaking too quickly may overwhelm them. Slightly faster-than-average speech, paired with clear articulation, is often seen as more persuasive and credible.
Tone and vocal quality give each person a unique “vocal signature.” Voices with variety, resonance, and clarity are generally viewed more positively than monotone, nasal, or heavily accented voices.
Vocal fillers such as “um,” “uh,” or “like” help speakers hold the floor while thinking. While common in conversation, excessive fillers in formal contexts can reduce credibility.
Proxemics
Proxemics is the study of how space and distance influence communication. Spatial metaphors like being “close” or “distant” reflect the link between space and relationships. Crowded environments, such as concerts or trains, may lead people to adjust their behavior, but unexpected invasions of personal space often cause discomfort. Research also suggests that extreme crowding can encourage negative or even aggressive behaviors. To better understand these dynamics, proxemics examines different personal space zones and territoriality.
Proxemic Distances
We all have varying definitions of what our “personal space” is, and these definitions are contextual and depend on the situation and the relationship. Although our bubbles are invisible, people are socialized into the norms of personal space within their cultural group. Scholars have identified four zones for US Americans, which are public, social, personal, and intimate distance (Hall, 1968). You can see how these zones relate to each other and to the individual in Figure 4.1 “Proxemic Zones of Personal Space”. Even within a particular zone, interactions may differ depending on whether someone is in the outer or inner part of the zone.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Proxemic Zones of Personal Space
Public Space (12 Feet or More)
Public and social zones refer to the space four or more feet away from our body, and the communication that typically occurs in these zones is formal and not intimate. Public space starts about twelve feet from a person and extends out from there. This is the least personal of the four zones and would typically be used when a person is engaging in a speech and is removed from the audience to allow the audience to see or when a high-profile or powerful person like a celebrity or executive maintains such a distance as a sign of power or for safety and security reasons.
Social Space (4–12 Feet)
Communication that occurs in the social zone, which is four to twelve feet away from our body, is typically in the context of a professional or casual interaction. This distance is preferred in many professional settings because it reduces the suspicion of any impropriety. The expression “keep someone at an arm’s length” means that someone is kept out of the personal space and kept in the social/professional space. If two people held up their arms and stood so just the tips of their fingers were touching, they would be around four feet away from each other, which is perceived as a safe distance because the possibility for intentional or unintentional touching doesn’t exist. It is also possible to have people in the outer portion of our social zone but not feel obligated to interact with them, but when people come much closer than six feet to us then we often feel obligated to at least acknowledge their presence. In many typically sized classrooms, much of your audience for a speech will actually be in your social zone rather than your public zone, which is actually beneficial because it helps you establish a better connection with them.
Personal Space (1.5–4 Feet)
Personal and intimate zones refer to the space that starts at our physical body and extends four feet. These zones are reserved for friends, close acquaintances, and significant others. Much of our communication occurs in the personal zone, which is what we typically think of as our “personal bubble” and extends from 1.5 feet to 4 feet away from our body. Even though we are getting closer to the physical body of another person, we may use verbal communication at this point to signal that our presence in this zone is friendly and not intimate. Even people who know each other could be uncomfortable spending too much time in this zone unnecessarily. In this subzone, we can easily touch the other person as we talk to them, briefly placing a hand on his or her arm or engaging in other light social touching that facilitates conversation, self-disclosure, and feelings of closeness.
Intimate Space (0-1.5 Feet)
As we breach the invisible line that is 1.5 feet from our body, we enter the intimate zone, which is reserved for only the closest friends, family, and romantic/intimate partners. It is impossible to completely ignore people when they are in this space, even if we are trying to pretend that we’re ignoring them. A breach of this space can be comforting in some contexts and annoying or frightening in others. We need regular human contact that isn’t just verbal but also physical. We have already discussed the importance of touch in nonverbal communication, and in order for that much-needed touch to occur, people have to enter our intimate space. Being close to someone and feeling their physical presence can be very comforting when words fail. There are also social norms regarding the amount of this type of closeness that can be displayed in public, as some people get uncomfortable even seeing others interacting in the intimate zone.
Space Violations
So what happens when our space is violated? Although these zones are well established in research for personal space preferences of US Americans, individuals vary in terms of their reactions to people entering certain zones, and determining what constitutes a “violation” of space is subjective and contextual. For example, another person’s presence in our social or public zones doesn’t typically arouse suspicion or negative physical or communicative reactions, but it could in some situations or with certain people. However, many situations lead to our personal and intimate space being breached by others against our will, and these breaches are more likely to be upsetting, even when they are expected. We’ve all had to get into a crowded elevator or wait in a long line. In such situations, we may rely on some verbal communication to reduce immediacy and indicate that we are not interested in closeness and are aware that a breach has occurred. People make comments about the crowd, saying, “We’re really packed in here like sardines,” or use humor to indicate that they are pleasant and well adjusted and uncomfortable with the breach like any “normal” person would be. Interestingly, as we will learn in our discussion of territoriality, we do not often use verbal communication to defend our personal space during regular interactions. Instead, we rely on more nonverbal communication like moving, crossing our arms, or avoiding eye contact to deal with breaches of space.
Territoriality
Territoriality is an innate drive to take up and defend spaces. This drive is shared by many creatures and entities, ranging from packs of animals to individual humans to nations. Whether it’s a gang territory, a neighborhood claimed by a particular salesperson, your preferred place to sit in a restaurant, your usual desk in the classroom, or the seat you’ve marked to save while getting concessions at a sporting event, we claim certain spaces as our own. There are three main divisions for territory: primary, secondary, and public (Hargie, 2011). Sometimes our claim to a space is official. These spaces are known as our primary territories because they are marked or understood to be exclusively ours and under our control. A person’s house, yard, room, desk, side of the bed, or shelf in the medicine cabinet could be considered primary territories.
Secondary territories don’t belong to us and aren’t exclusively under our control, but they are associated with us, which may lead us to assume that the space will be open and available to us when we need it without us taking any further steps to reserve it. This happens in classrooms regularly. Students often sit in the same desk or at least same general area as they did on the first day of class. There may be some small adjustments during the first couple of weeks, but by a month into the quarter, students moving voluntarily is rare. When someone else takes a student’s regular desk, she or he is typically annoyed.
Public territories are open to all people. People are allowed to mark public territory and use it for a limited period of time, but space is often up for grabs, which makes public space difficult to manage for some people and can lead to conflict. To avoid this type of situation, people use a variety of objects that are typically recognized by others as nonverbal cues that mark a place as temporarily reserved—for example, jackets, bags, papers, or a drink. There is some ambiguity in the use of markers, though. A half-empty cup of coffee may be seen as trash and thrown away, which would be an annoying surprise to a person who left it to mark his or her table while visiting the restroom.
Chronemics
Chronemics refers to the study of how time affects communication. Time can be classified into several different categories, including biological, personal, physical, and cultural time (Andersen, 1999). Biological time refers to the rhythms of living things. Humans follow a circadian rhythm, meaning that we are on a daily cycle that influences when we eat, sleep, and wake. When our natural rhythms are disturbed, by all-nighters, jet lag, or other scheduling abnormalities, our physical and mental health and our communication competence and personal relationships can suffer.
Personal time refers to the ways in which individuals experience time. The way we experience time varies based on our mood, our interest level, and other factors. Think about how quickly time passes when you are interested in and therefore engaged in something.People with past-time orientations may want to reminisce about the past, reunite with old friends, and put considerable time into preserving memories and keepsakes in scrapbooks and photo albums. People with future-time orientations may spend the same amount of time making career and personal plans, writing out to-do lists, or researching future vacations, potential retirement spots, or what book they’re going to read next.
Physical time refers to the fixed cycles of days, years, and seasons. Physical time, especially seasons, can affect our mood and psychological states. Some people experience seasonal affective disorder that leads them to experience emotional distress and anxiety during the changes of seasons, primarily from warm and bright to dark and cold (summer to fall and winter).
Cultural time refers to how a large group of people view time. Polychronic people do not view time as a linear progression that needs to be divided into small units and scheduled in advance. Polychronic people keep more flexible schedules and may engage in several activities at once. Monochronic people tend to schedule their time more rigidly and do one thing at a time. A polychronic or monochronic orientation to time influences our social realities and how we interact with others.
Personal Presentation and Environment
Personal presentation includes our physical characteristics and the artifacts we use to express ourselves. Physical traits such as body shape, height, weight, and attractiveness strongly influence first impressions, even though cultural ideals vary. Attractive individuals often receive social advantages, and media-driven beauty standards fuel industries like fitness, fashion, and cosmetic surgery.
Artifacts—such as clothing, jewelry, tattoos, piercings, and hairstyles—also send powerful nonverbal messages. For example, tattoos and piercings may be seen as more or less appropriate depending on their size, location, and the setting. Hairstyles and body hair can communicate conservatism, individuality, or rebellion. Jewelry and symbols (e.g., wedding rings, crosses, rainbow flags) convey identity, beliefs, and affiliations.
Our environment also shapes communication. The objects and spaces we create—like books on a coffee table, flowers in a foyer, or the layout of furniture—signal messages about mood, status, and relationships. A therapist’s office, for instance, may use soft lighting and comfortable chairs to promote openness, while luxury items may signal power or prestige. In sum, both our physical traits and the artifacts around us continually influence how others perceive and respond to us.
