9.3: Issues to Consider

Learning Objectives

• Identify the main issues that interviewers should consider.

• Describe the options that interviewers have for balancing power between themselves and interview participants.

• Describe and define rapport.

• Define the term probe.

The fact that the researcher interacts with their subjects creates a few complexities that deserve attention. These complexities are examined below.

Power

First and foremost, interviewers must be aware of and attentive to the power differential between themselves and interview participants. The interviewer sets the agenda and leads the conversation. While interviewers aim to allow participants to have some control over which or to what extent various topics are discussed, at the end of the day, it is the researcher who is in charge (at least that is how most respondents will perceive it to be). As the researcher, you are asking someone to reveal things about themselves they may not typically share with others. Also, you are generally not reciprocating by revealing much or anything about yourself. All these factors shape the power dynamics of an interview.

A number of excellent pieces have been written dealing with issues of power in research and data collection. Modern qualitative methodologists emphasize that acknowledging the intersubjectivity of the interview transforms subjects from mere sources of information into active co-producers of knowledge, which helps balance the power differential (Cheron et al., 2022). Suggestions for overcoming the power imbalance between researcher and respondent include having the researcher reveal some aspects of their own identity and story so that the interview is a more reciprocal experience rather than one-sided, allowing participants to view and edit interview transcripts before the researcher uses them for analysis, and giving participants an opportunity to read and comment on the analysis before the researcher shares it with others through publication or presentation. On the other hand, some researchers note that sharing too much with interview participants can give the false impression that there is no power differential, when in reality researchers retain the ability to analyze and present participants’ stories in whatever way they see fit.

Regardless of how a researcher feels about sharing details about their background with an interview participant, another way to balance the power differential is to make the intent of the research very clear to the subjects. Share the rationale for conducting the research and the research questions that frame the work. Be sure that subjects also know how the data gathered will be used and stored. Also, ensure participants understand how their privacy will be protected, including who will have access to the data and what procedures, such as using pseudonyms, will be taken to protect their identities. Many of these details will be covered by an institutional review board’s informed consent procedures and requirements, but even if they are not, researchers should be attentive to how sharing information with participants can help balance the power differences between themselves and those who participate in their research.

There are no easy answers when it comes to handling the power differential between the researcher and researched, and even social scientists do not agree on the best approach for doing so. It is, nevertheless, an issue to be attentive to when conducting any form of research, particularly those that involve interpersonal interactions and relationships with research participants.

Location Matters

One way to balance the power between researcher and respondent is to conduct the interview in a location of the participant's choosing, where they will feel most comfortable answering questions. Interviews can take place in any number of locations: in respondents’ homes or offices, researchers’ homes or offices, coffee shops, restaurants, public parks, or hotel lobbies, to name just a few possibilities. Researchers conduct interviews in all these locations, and each comes with its own set of benefits and challenges. While allowing the respondent to choose the location that is most convenient and most comfortable for them is of utmost importance, identifying a location where there will be few distractions is also crucial. For example, some coffee shops and restaurants are so loud that recording the interview can be a challenge. Other locations may present different sorts of distractions. For example, some researchers conduct interviews with parents who, out of necessity, spend more time attending to their children during an interview than responding to questions (of course, depending on the topic of the research, the opportunity to observe such interactions could be invaluable). As an interviewer, you may want to suggest a few possible locations and note the goal of avoiding distractions when you ask your respondents to choose a location.

Of course, the extent to which a respondent should be given complete control over choosing a location must also be balanced by the accessibility of the location to the interviewer and by the interviewer's safety and comfort level with the location. A researcher might agree to conduct an interview in a respondent’s home only to discover upon arriving that the environment contains highly offensive or distracting elements, such as violently racist posters. Even if the topic of the interview has nothing to do with the respondent’s decor, the discomfort and fear the researcher feels can consume them and distract from their ability to carry on the interview. In retrospect, researchers in such situations often wish they had thought to come up with an excuse to reschedule the interview in a more neutral location. While it is important to conduct interviews in a location that is comfortable for respondents, doing so should never come at the expense of your safety.

Researcher-Respondent Relationship

Finally, a unique feature of interviews is that they require some social interaction, which means that to at least some extent, a relationship is formed between interviewer and interviewee based on respect. (If you are thinking this sounds a lot like passing a mutual "vibe check" or "matching energies" to create a safe space, you are not entirely wrong). A good rapport between you and the person you interview is crucial to successful interviewing. Rapport is the sense of connection you establish with a participant. Some argue that this term is too clinical, and perhaps it implies that a researcher tricks a participant into thinking they are closer than they really are. While it is unfortunately true that some researchers might adopt this misguided approach to rapport, that is not the sense in which the term is used here, nor is that the sort of rapport researchers should attempt to establish with their subjects. Instead, as already mentioned, it is respect that is key.

There are no big secrets or tricks for how to show respect for research participants. At its core, the interview interaction should not differ from any other social interaction in which you show gratitude for a person’s time and respect for a person’s humanity. It is crucial that the interviewer conducts the interview in a way that is culturally sensitive. In some cases, this might mean educating yourself about your study population and even receiving some training to help you learn to effectively communicate with your research participants. Do not judge your research participants; you are there to listen to them, and they have been kind enough to give you their time and attention. Even if you disagree strongly with what a participant shares in an interview, your job as the researcher is to gather the information being shared with you, not to make personal judgments about it. For researchers feeling uncertain about how to establish rapport and show participants respect, here are a few additional bits of advice.

Developing good rapport requires good listening. The interview is a versatile tool for data production that relies heavily on multisensory channels, including verbal communication, body language, and active listening (Cheron et al., 2022). In fact, listening during an interview is an active, not a passive, practice. Active listening means that the researcher participates with the respondent by showing that they understand and follow whatever it is that is being shared. The questions you ask respondents should indicate that you have actually heard what they have just said. Active listening probably means that you will probe the respondent for more information from time to time throughout the interview. A probe is a request for more information.

Interviewers probe respondents, though the way they probe usually differs. In interviews, probing should be uniform. Often interviewers will predetermine what sorts of probes they will use. In many professional research firms, supervisors randomly listen in on telephone interviews to ensure quality. Interviewers are explicitly instructed not to use probes that might make them appear to agree or disagree with what respondents said. Therefore, "yes," "I agree," or a questioning "hmmm" are discouraged. Instead, interviewers might respond with "thank you" to indicate that they heard a respondent. They use "yes" or "no" if, and only if, a respondent specifically asks if they heard or understood what was just said.

In some ways, interviews better lend themselves to following up with respondents and asking them to explain, describe, or otherwise provide more information. This is because interviewing techniques are designed to go with the flow and take whatever direction the respondent goes during the interview. Nevertheless, it is worth your time to come up with helpful probes in advance. You certainly do not want to find yourself stumped or speechless after a respondent has just said something about which you would like to hear more. This is another reason that practicing your interview in advance with people who are similar to those in your sample is a good idea.

Key Takeaways

• Power Dynamics: Feminist researchers paved the way for helping interviewers think about how to balance the power differential between themselves and interview participants.

• Respect: Interviewers must always be respectful of interview participants and practice active listening.

Exercises

1. Location Brainstorming: Imagine that you will be conducting interviews. What are some possible locations around the Orange Coast College campus or the wider Orange County area you think might be good places to conduct interviews? What makes those locations good?

2. Power Balancing: What do you think about the suggestions for balancing power between interviewers and interviewees? How much of your own story do you think you would be likely to share with interview participants? Why? What are the possible consequences (positive and negative) of revealing information about yourself when you are the researcher?