The rapid development of technological devices such as computers, smartphones, tablets, and gaming systems has dramatically changed people’s daily lives at home and at work. New technologies and electronic media offer tools for communication and social networking, information searching and documentation, as well as learning and entertainment. Young children are growing up surrounded by technology and electronic media. At least two-thirds of homes with children (from birth to age six) have computers and Internet access (Gutnick et al., 2010; Roberts & Foehr, 2008). Moreover, according to a national survey by Common Sense Media in 2011, 52 percent of young children (birth to age eight) have access to smartphones or tablets (Rideout 2011). Young children are active users of media (Roberts and Foehr, 2008). They acclimate to digital devices with ease and demonstrate confidence in using software (Clements and Sarama, 2008). With the prevalence of technology and electronic media in their environment, young children are spending an increasing number of hours in front of screen technologies, particularly television, but also computers and other devices, with an average of 2.2 hours per day of screen time for children between the ages of two and five (Roberts and Foehr 2008).
Children from low-income families, those with less education, and individuals from Black, Hispanic, and rural backgrounds are less likely to have access to the latest technologies and broadband connections to the Internet (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2011). Inequality in access to technology has narrowed over the years; however, the “digital divide” persists (Roberts and Foehr 2008).
The pervasiveness of electronic media in the lives of many young children prompts educators, parents, and advocates to question the value of technology in children’s development. Some electronic media, such as certain television programs, videos, and DVDs, are non-interactive and involve passive viewing. Other forms of electronic media, such as software programs, applications, the Internet, e-books, and certain television programs, facilitate active and creative use by young children. These latter forms are referred to as interactive media(NAEYC and FRC 2012). There is limited research on the impact of newer technology, such as computer software, handheld devices, interactive applications for mobile devices, and wireless technology, on children’s development. Most of the research on the impact of media on young children has focused on television and video. Studies of infants and toddlers suggest that videos offer no language benefits for them.
Young children learn much better from real-life experiences than from watching videos. Moreover, excessive exposure to electronic media may have a negative effect on attention development, particularly for children younger than two (Kirkorian, Wartella, and Anderson 2008). Research indicates that the impact of electronic media on older children depends on the age of children, the context in which they use media, the content of the media, and the amount of time they spend with screens (Kirkorian, Wartella, and Anderson 2008; Campaign for Commercial-Free Childhood, Alliance for Childhood, and Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Children’s Entertainment 2012).
By age three, children can benefit from well-designed, age-appropriate electronic media, especially when a caring adult watches the program with the child and is actively involved in their experience. Research emphasizes the importance of developmentally appropriate content being offered to children, whether on television or other interactive media software. Educational television programs designed around a curriculum with a specific goal to communicate academic or social skills were linked to various cognitive and academic enhancements, with potentially long-lasting effects (Fisch, 2004). For example, research demonstrates a positive association between early exposure to Sesame Street television episodes and school readiness (Zill 2001). However, television and videos with entertainment content, particularly violent content, were associated with poor cognitive development and lower academic achievement (Kirkorian, Wartella, and Anderson 2008).
Studies of preschool children’s computer play demonstrated that young children can use computers and software to support their learning. Children can understand, think critically about, and learn from their computer activities (Clements and Sarama, 2008). Research has shown that in children’s computer play with interactive media software, there is a period of discovery, followed by involvement, self-confidence, and creativity (Bergen, 2008). Computer-play software can offer children various possibilities, including practice (self-directed repetition to achieve mastery), pretense (symbolic play in a “pretend to be” world), and games (challenge and competition, either with a peer, oneself, or an imaginary opponent) (Kafai 2006).
There is limited research on how educational computer software can enhance preschool children’s academic readiness skills. Some research suggests that software with an educational curriculum may have a positive influence on learning (Din and Calao 2001). Overall, studies indicate that, when used appropriately, technology and media can enhance children’s cognitive and social abilities (Kirkorian, Wartella, and Anderson 2008). Even so, additional research is needed to confirm the positive effects of technology on children’s language and vocabulary, understanding of math concepts, self-regulation, and social skills development (NAEYC and FRC, 2012).[1]
Technology and Interactive Media in the Preschool Environment
Technology has many uses in early childhood settings. On any given day, teachers may use technology to support children’s learning, record and document children’s development, expand their own knowledge in various areas, maintain ongoing communication with families, and link homes with the school. The focus of this section is on the use of technology and interactive media in preschool settings to support and enhance children’s learning.
A growing number of early childhood educators use technology and interactive media in their programs as tools to support children’s learning and development (Wartella et al. 2010). In a recent survey by the Fred Rogers Center (Wartella et al. 2010) about technology in the lives of teachers and classrooms, nearly 60 percent of early childhood teachers reported having a computer, and 45 percent have computers with Internet access in their classrooms. More than half of the early childhood teachers indicated that children should be introduced to technology in the classroom between the ages of three and four, and about one-third of the teachers reported using computers with children daily (Wartella et al., 2010). With the increasing interest and use of technology in preschool settings, early childhood educators need guidance on how to use technology and interactive media wisely and effectively. Several important questions come to mind:
Which technology and media tools are effective for learning?
In which domains of development can the use of technology be most effective?
How do early childhood educators appropriately integrate technology and media into preschool settings?
How can technology be used to support children’s learning?
Figure 1.7: The inclusion of technology in programs' curricula is a consideration that should be thoughtfully considered.[2]
A joint position statement issued in 2012 by the National Association for Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the Fred Rogers Center (FRC) offers guidance. Based on research, the statement addresses both the opportunities and the challenges related to using technology and interactive media in early childhood programs. The following section presents key messages from the NAEYC/FRC position statement on technology. A set of strategies consistent with the approach articulated in the position statement is provided to guide administrators and teachers in integrating technology and interactive media into preschool programs.[3]
The Benefits and the Challenges of Using Technology and Interactive Media
Technology and interactive media have the potential to make many contributions to early childhood education. Technology can provide children with additional ways to explore, create, communicate, problem-solve, investigate, and learn. Computer technology, for example, offers young children a range of learning opportunities—from solving math problems to listening to interactive stories, taking photos, recording stories, creating digital books, making music, and engaging in other age-appropriate learning activities (Blagojevic et al., 2010). Many educational applications for young children are designed to help children develop skills and knowledge in specific domains, particularly in areas such as language, literacy, and mathematics (Buckleitner 2011). Such programs can provide individualized learning opportunities for children. In mathematics, computer programs present children with tasks, provide feedback, and help young children develop concepts and skills in areas such as counting, number relationships and operations, sorting and patterning, measurement, and geometry (Clements & Sarama, 2008; McCarthy, Li, & Tiu, 2012). In language and literacy, computer software can enhance vocabulary learning (Segers and Vermeer, 2008) and support the learning of listening, speaking, writing, and reading skills (Guernsey et al., 2012). Dual language learners can also use computers to enhance their home language and acquire English (Blagojevic et al. 2010; Nemeth 2009).
The use of technology can also enrich the science curriculum. Cameras and recording devices offer valuable educational experiences by enabling children to take photos and videos, document objects and events, and track changes in objects and materials. Digital microscopes enable children to capture images of objects they explore, and share and discuss these images with their peers. Robotics with manipulative motors and gears engages young children in designing their own robotic creations, providing them with opportunities to be both creative engineers and to explore abstract mathematical and scientific concepts in concrete ways (Bers 2008).
The use of technology in preschool settings also creates opportunities for equitable access to technology tools and interactive media experiences for children from different socioeconomic backgrounds, including those in families with limited resources and little to no access to the latest technologies (NAEYC and FRC, 2012). Furthermore, technology has many potential benefits in supporting inclusive practices for children with disabilities or other special needs (Mulligan 2003).
A variety of assistive and adaptive technologies (e.g., electronic communication boards, switch-activated toys, recordable devices) enhance children’s participation and learning with peers. For example, a child who enjoys playing with bubbles can operate an electronic bubble blower for other children to chase (Mistrett, 2004). Another child can let a peer know which game she wants to play by indicating it on the electronic tablet that has photos taken by her teacher. By using assistive technology, early childhood educators can help children with disabilities or other special needs become more independent. Children with special needs can use technologies to support their ability to communicate and interact with others, move throughout the environment, manipulate objects, and participate in daily routines and educational activities.
Figure 1.8: Technology can help children with disabilities participate in the environment and communicate.[4]
Overall, effective use of technology and interactive media can enhance and augment children’s learning in various domains, thereby extending their access to new content. However, technology is effective only when used appropriately. Although the use of technology and interactive media provides programs with opportunities to enhance quality and optimize young children’s development, early childhood educators should understand the limits of technology and be aware of the challenges of using technology and interactive media in the preschool environment. As stated in the NAEYC/FRC position statement, “Technology and interactive media are tools that can promote effective learning and development when they are used intentionally by early childhood educators, within the framework of developmentally appropriate practice, to support learning goals established for individual children” (NAEYC and FRC 2012, 5).
Technology and interactive media should supplement, not replace, existing play-based materials, active play, engagement with other children, and face-to-face interactions with adults. Several professional and public health organizations have raised concerns about whether young children should have access to technology and screen media in early childhood programs (e.g., Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood, Alliance for Childhood, and Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Children’s Entertainment 2012). The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends avoiding media other than video chatting until 18 months, limiting 2- to 5-year-olds to one hour per day of high-quality programming, and for children aged six and older, placing consistent limits on time and types of media. These recommendations aim to prevent media use from displacing physical activity, hands-on exploration, and face-to-face social interaction in the real world, which are essential for learning.
This chapter follows the recommendations of the NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center (2012) and aligns with the public health community's discouragement of using screen media for children under 24 months in early childhood programs. Such guidance for educators working with infants and toddlers may evolve in the future as more research on very young children’s active use of interactive media and its impact on children’s learning and development continues to emerge (e.g., Zack et al., 2013).
Monitoring the content of interactive media is as important as setting limits on the time young children spend with technology. Although there are valuable software, websites, and other forms of interactive media for young children, some have limited educational value or may include content that is not safe or appropriate for children. The challenge for early childhood educators is “to make informed choices that maximize learning opportunities for children while managing screen time and mediating the potential for misuse and overuse of screen media” (NAEYC and FRC 2012, 3). Educators should possess the knowledge, skills, and experience necessary to select and utilize technology tools and interactive media that suit the age and developmental level of children and can be effectively integrated into the environment (NAEYC and FRC, 2012).
The following guidelines outline key considerations for programs and teachers when selecting, evaluating, integrating, and using technology in preschool settings.[5]
Selecting Technology and Interactive Media to Enhance Children’s Learning
The rapid development of technology platforms, including computers, laptops, multitouch tablets, and other handheld devices, as well as the growing selection of available educational applications, websites, and software, presents educators with numerous choices for integrating technology into the preschool environment. However, technology and media-based products may vary widely in quality. Intentionality is important. Thoughtful, advanced planning is essential for a responsible investment in technology in early childhood settings. Early childhood educators should apply their expertise and knowledge of child development when selecting appropriate technology and media for the classroom, just as they do with any other instructional materials (NAEYC and FRC, 2012). Educators should take the time to evaluate and select technology, observe children’s use of the materials, and make appropriate adjustments based on their observations. The Fred Rogers Center (2012) proposed a framework for quality in digital media (FRC, 2012), recommending that educators consider the child, the content, and the context when selecting digital media for young children.
Consider children’s developmental level, interests, abilities, and cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Teachers must be intentional in selecting the technology and interactive media they offer children in their classroom. In selecting appropriate technology and interactive media, educators make decisions informed by developmentally appropriate teaching practices. This means that early childhood educators consider the age, developmental level, needs, interests, linguistic backgrounds, and abilities of individual children in the group (NAEYC and FRC, 2012).
Ensure equitable access to technology and interactive media experiences. In selecting technology and interactive media, educators provide opportunities for all children to participate and have access to these learning tools. Educators should consider the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of the children in their classrooms. Technology resources can provide access to children’s home language and culture, especially when there are no other ways to obtain such information (NAEYC and FRC 2012). For example, children can listen to electronic books in their native language, record songs and stories, and create digital stories in both their native language and English (Blagojevic et al., 2010). Educators can collaborate with family members and colleagues who speak the children’s home language to gain access to appropriate interactive media in that language.
Materials and equipment selected for children with disabilities or other special needs should be evaluated. Adaptive and assistive technologies are available to support individual children in their classrooms. Programs should consider the level of technology necessary and the child’s individual needs to ensure that the technology is best suited to the child’s unique disabilities and to the demands of the environment (Mulligan 2003). Not all assistive devices are necessarily “high tech” or custom-designed for a particular child. In fact, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act defines an assistive technology deviceas any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability (Mistrett 2004).
Identify the underlying objectives of the technology. Most electronic media targeted at preschoolers are designed to entertain rather than educate. Technology in the preschool environment should be used only for educational activities. When evaluating software programs, applications, or other forms of interactive media, educators should be able to identify the overall goals or purpose of the product: Is it intended to educate or entertain? Is it interactive? Is it to develop particular skills, to introduce children to new information, or maybe a combination of these (FRC 2012; Campaign for Commercial-Free Childhood, Alliance for Childhood, and Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Children’s Entertainment 2012)? Understanding the intent of a digital program and the learning goals for different children in the program should guide educators’ intentional decisions when selecting interactive media materials (FRC 2012).
Evaluate the quality of the content. First and foremost, educators should evaluate the quality of the content to ensure that using such materials will not harm young children’s overall development or well-being in any way (NAEYC and FRC, 2012; FRC, 2012). Interactive media products can be used as tools to meet the needs of individual children and expand their access to new content in areas of interest to them. During the selection process, program administrators and teachers should have access to information and resources regarding the nature of these tools and their implications for use with children. Program administrators and teachers should also have hands-on opportunities to explore and experience the technology being considered for use with children. Educators can apply their expertise and knowledge of child development to ensure that digital materials are developmentally and culturally appropriate for the children in the group. They should examine the educational content, format, and features, and carefully consider any implicit messages communicated during the use of the software or application. Some undesirable messages (e.g., stereotypes, negative images, or actions) may be biased and fail to promote social and emotional understanding in the early years (Tsantis, Bewick, and Thouvenelle 2003).
Select technology and interactive media that support children’s creativity, exploration, and problem-solving. When selecting activities that use technology and interactive media, early educators should ask themselves: Does it encourage children to explore, think, experiment, predict, be creative, and problem-solve? Does it offer a range of experiences and a high level of interactivity? Is it open-ended or focused on skills? Experiences with technology and other media that engage children in repetitive practice and rote learning, or involve passive use, are undesirable. Effective technology and media empower children by giving them control, offering challenges through “leveled” experiences, and providing them with feedback and adaptive scaffolds (Clements and Sarama 2008).
Use the best available evidence in the selection process. More research is needed to understand what young children can do with different digital devices and to assess the short-term and long-term effects of new technologies on children’s learning. Educators are encouraged to make decisions about the quality of interactive media products based on the best available evidence for each product (FRC, 2012).[6]
Integrating and Using Technology in the Preschool Environment
Once the desired software or appropriate technology devices for the program are selected, educators should apply their expertise and knowledge of child development to make thoughtful decisions on how to introduce and integrate the selected forms of technology into the learning environment. The teacher’s role is critical in ensuring that technology is implemented in ways that serve the teaching goals and support children’s learning in an appropriate and effective manner.
Technology and interactive media are used within the framework of developmentally appropriate practice. Developmentally appropriate practice encourages hands-on exploration, empowers children to reflect, question, and create, and values the relationships between children and the adults in their lives (NAEYC, 2009). Professional knowledge of developmentally appropriate practice informs and guides decision-making about how to introduce and integrate any form of technology and interactive media into early childhood programs. Technology and media should not replace preschool activities such as real-life exploration, physical activity, social interactions, outdoor and indoor play, and the arts. Instead, they should be used as additional tools to encourage children’s problem-solving, exploration, and creativity. They can also support children’s relationships with both adults and their peers, and foster children’s autonomy (NAEYC and FRC, 2012; Donohue and Schomburg, 2012; Nemeth and Simon, 2012), particularly for some children with disabilities (Mistrett, 2004).
Technology and interactive media are integrated into the environment, curriculum, and daily routines (NAEYC and FRC 2012). True integration of technology and media into the preschool environment involves using various technology resources throughout the classroom. No period is set aside in the daily schedule for “computer time,” when technology and media are used as isolated activities. Technology and interactive media are woven into the fabric of daily life and are used as tools for learning, rather than as the focus or goal of a learning activity. Technology is one way to support curriculum goals and needs; the program offers a balance of activities that support children’s development in all learning domains. When using a particular application or software, teachers should consider how it supports the objectives for individual children in the group, how it fits into the classroom’s current curriculum project or theme of study, and how it extends other activities in ways not possible otherwise (Nemeth and Simon, 2012).
Time spent with technology and media is limited. Setting limits on the time young children spend with technology and interactive media is important. As previously indicated, the public health community discourages the use of passive screen media for children under two years of age and recommends limited screen time daily for children older than two (American Academy of Pediatrics 2011). Some of the public health concerns are that the overuse of media takes time away from other activities that involve physical exercise. Sedentary activities are potentially a risk factor for childhood obesity (Wartella and Heintz 2007). The position statement by the NAEYC/FRC points to the following recommendation in the Early Childhood Obesity Prevention Policies: “child care [and preschool] settings limit screen time to fewer than 30 minutes per day for children in half day programs or less than one hour per day for those in full day programs (Birch, Parker, and Burns 2011).” Teachers play a critical role in establishing clear boundaries on the use of technology and screen time in the preschool setting. They are also encouraged to share information with families on how to promote children’s healthy use of technology at home (Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood, Alliance for Childhood, and Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Children’s Entertainment 2012).
The use of technology and interactive media facilitates social interactions and relationship building. The effective use of technology and interactive media in the classroom environment enables joint engagement, allowing both children and adults, as well as children and their peers, to view and participate (NAEYC and FRC, 2012). Studies on the social dimension of preschool children’s computer play have found that preschoolers observe each other while playing, comment on others’ actions, share and help with software-related problems, and experience conflicts over turn-taking (Heft and Swaminathan, 2002). Computers and other digital devices should be placed in areas that facilitate group interaction and collaboration. Some children may choose technology, such as a computer, because it is familiar or even as a way to avoid interaction. Careful observation is needed to monitor the use of technology and determine individual appropriate use. The effective use of technology and interactive media can promote communication and collaboration among children (Wright, 1994). It often provides the context for information sharing, language development, and collaborative decision-making (Tsantis, Bewick, and Thouvenelle, 2003). Tech-savvy children may also serve as computer mentors for their peers (Blagojevic et al., 2010).
Figure 1.9: The teacher is monitoring children as they use the computer together.[7]
Teachers provide support while children use technology and interactive media. As with any learning activity, teachers play a crucial role in facilitating children’s engagement with technology and media. The teachers introduce children to computers or other devices (e.g., digital cameras, printers, touch screens) and explain how they work. They observe what individual children do and learn about children’s ability to use technology. Children vary in their ability to use technology and interactive media. Teachers also give children time to freely explore new technology tools, model the appropriate use of technology, and help them become familiar with any new software activities. They establish rules and routines with children to guide the appropriate handling and use of computers and other technological devices (Blagojevic et al., 2010; Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood, Alliance for Childhood, and Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Children’s Entertainment, 2012). During technology-related activities, teachers carefully observe and document what children do, assessing their learning. Teachers identify problems or opportunities for teachable moments, extending the media experience to other learning opportunities, and facilitating the experience through language-rich interactions. Additionally, teachers determine when a child is ready to progress to the next level of knowledge or skill development (FRC, 2012). They consider children’s varying abilities to control and operate technology and media and support children’s “technology-handling” skills, as needed. Teachers make appropriate adaptations, based on their observations, to promote positive outcomes for individual children.[8]
