8.5.1: Risk-Factors

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Learning Objectives

Identify maternal health risks associated with pregnancy after age 35.
Summarize the potential paternal influences on prenatal development, including age-related risks and occupational or environmental exposures.

Maternal Factors

There are additional factors that affect the outcome of pregnancy for both mother and child. Let’s look at these next.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): A pregnant woman relaxing in a tub. Image by Thomas Pompernigg is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

Mothers over 35

Most women over the age of 35 who become pregnant and are in good health have healthy pregnancies. However, according to the March of Dimes (2016), women over age 35 are more likely to have an increased risk of:

Fertility problems
High blood pressure
Diabetes
Miscarriages
Placenta Previa
Cesarean section
Premature birth
Stillbirth
A baby with a genetic disorder or other birth defects

Because a woman is born with all her eggs, environmental teratogens can affect the quality of the eggs as women get older. Also, a woman’s reproductive system ages, which can adversely affect the pregnancy. Some women over 35 choose special prenatal screening tests, such as a maternal blood screening, to determine if there are any health risks for the baby.

Although there are medical concerns associated with having a child later in life, there are also many positive consequences to being a more mature parent. Older parents are generally more confident, less stressed, and typically married, which provides family stability. Their children perform better on math and reading tests, and they are less prone to injuries or emotional troubles (Albert, 2013). Women who choose to wait are often well educated and lead healthy lives. According to Gregory (2007), older women are more stable, demonstrate a stronger family focus, possess greater self-confidence, and have more money. Having a child later in one’s career equals overall higher wages. In fact, for every year a woman delays motherhood, she makes 9% more in lifetime earnings. Lastly, women who delay having children actually live longer.

Teenage Pregnancy

A teenage mother is at a greater risk of having pregnancy complications, including anemia and high blood pressure. These risks are even greater for individuals under the age of 15. Infants born to teenage mothers have a higher risk of being premature and having low birthweight or other serious health problems. Premature and low birthweight babies may have organs that are not fully developed, which can result in breathing problems, bleeding in the brain, vision loss, serious intestinal problems, and a higher likelihood of dying. Reasons for these health issues include that teenagers are the least likely of all age groups to get early and regular prenatal care, and they may engage in negative behaviors, including eating unhealthy food, smoking, drinking alcohol, and taking drugs.

Paternal Impact

The age of fathers at the time of conception is also an important factor in health risks for children. According to Nippoldt (2015), offspring of men over 40 face an increased risk of miscarriages, autism, birth defects, achondroplasia (a bone growth disorder), and schizophrenia. These increased health risks are thought to be due to accumulated chromosomal aberrations and mutations during the maturation of sperm cells in older men (Bray et. al, 2006). However, like older women, the overall risks are small.

In addition, men are more likely than women to work in occupations where hazardous chemicals, many of which have teratogenic effects or may cause genetic mutations, are used (Cordier, 2008). These may include petrochemicals, lead, and pesticides that can cause abnormal sperm and lead to miscarriages or diseases. Men are also more likely to be a source of secondhand smoke for their developing offspring. As noted earlier, smoking by either the mother or around the mother can hinder prenatal development. ⁵⁷

References, Contributions and Attributions

Albert, E. (2013). Many more women delay childbirth into 40s due to career constraints. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Retrieved from http://www.jsonline.com/news/health/...220272671.html

Bray, I., Gunnell, D., & Smith, G. D. (2006). Advanced paternal age: How old is too old? Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 60(10), 851-853. Doi: 10.1136/jech.2005.045179

Cordier, S. (2008). Evidence for a role of paternal exposure in developmental toxicity. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, 102, 176-181.

March of Dimes. (2016). Pregnancy after age 35. Retrieved from http://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnanc...er-age-35.aspx

Nippoldt, T.B. (2015). How does paternal age affect a baby’s health? Mayo Clinic. Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-li...ernal-age/faq- 20057873

57. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (pages 52-55) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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