11.3.4: Variability in Motor Development
- Page ID
- 232875
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)
\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)
\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)- Explain the typical sequence and patterns of gross and fine motor development in infancy and toddlerhood.
- Analyze how cultural practices and caregiving environments influence the timing of motor milestones, including toilet-learning approaches.
- Describe the role of motor and cognitive development in toilet learning.
The Sequencing of Motor Milestones in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Motor development in infancy and toddlerhood follows a predictable sequence, with infants generally acquiring gross motor skills before fine motor skills. This progression follows a cephalocaudal (head-to-toe) and proximodistal (center-outward) pattern (Santrock, 2021). Typical motor milestones include lifting the head, rolling over, sitting unsupported, crawling, standing, and eventually walking. These milestones are largely influenced by genetic factors, but environmental conditions also play a critical role.
Cultural practices can shape motor development by either accelerating or delaying certain milestones. For example, in some African and Caribbean cultures, infants are actively encouraged to practice standing and walking through stretching and upright carrying techniques, often leading to earlier independent walking (Karasik et al., 2018). Conversely, in cultures where infants spend more time in confined spaces, such as being swaddled or worn for extended periods, motor development may progress at a slower rate (Super & Harkness, 2002).
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). A village woman is carrying her sleeping child in a baby wrap. Image by Ammad Rasool is licensed by Pexels.
In contemporary Western settings, the use of restrictive devices, such as baby walkers and bouncers, as well as prolonged time in car seats, has raised concerns about delayed motor skill acquisition. Research suggests that infants who have more opportunities for free movement and floor play tend to develop stronger muscles and coordination compared to those who spend extended time in containment devices (Zachry & Kitzmann, 2011). Free movement supports not only physical growth but also cognitive, social, and emotional development, as children engage in sensory exploration and social interactions through movement.
Broader Implications
The development of motor skills is closely linked to other domains of growth. As infants gain mobility, they also expand their cognitive abilities by exploring their surroundings, which fosters problem-solving skills and spatial awareness (Bertenthal & Campos, 1990). Additionally, improved motor coordination supports fine motor skills, which are crucial for self-help tasks such as feeding and dressing. Social and emotional development also benefits, as toddlers gain confidence and independence through movement, which leads to increased interactions with caregivers and peers.
Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Toilet Learning
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). A young girl is practicing toilet learning with her stuffed bear. Image by Manish Bansal is licensed CC BY 2.0.
One significant area influenced by motor skill development is toilet learning. The ability to control elimination depends not only on physical maturation, such as sphincter control and gross motor stability, but also on cognitive awareness and social expectations. Cultures differ significantly in how they approach the toilet learning process. In parts of East Asia and Africa, caregivers practice elimination communication from infancy, responding to infants’ cues and encouraging toilet use from a very young age (Boucke, 2003). In contrast, Western cultures often take a more child-centered approach, emphasizing the child's readiness and active participation in the learning process.
In the United States, best practices for toilet learning emphasize a child-centered approach, recognizing that each child develops at their own pace. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP, 2016) recommends waiting until a child shows clear readiness indicators, such as:
- staying dry for extended periods,
- demonstrating an interest in using the toilet, and
- being able to communicate their needs.
Positive reinforcement, consistency, and avoiding punishment are key considerations in ensuring a smooth and stress-free transition for the child.
References, Contributors and Attributions
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2016). Caring for your baby and young child: Birth to age 5 (6th ed.). Bantam Books.
Bertenthal, B. I., & Campos, J. J. (1990). A systems approach to the organizing effects of self-produced locomotion during infancy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(1), 12-15.
Boucke, L. (2003). Infant potty training: A gentle and primeval method adapted to modern living. White-Boucke Publishing.
Karasik, L. B., Adolph, K. E., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Bornstein, M. H. (2018). WEIRD walking: Cross-cultural research on motor development. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 41, e70. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X17000012
Rogers, J. (2013). Cultural differences in toilet training: Implications for parents and caregivers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(3), 490-498.
Santrock, J. W. (2021). Children (14th ed.). McGraw Hill.
Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (2002). Culture structures the environment for development. Human Development, 45(4), 270-274.
Zachry, A. H., & Kitzmann, K. M. (2011). Caregiver practices and their influence on motor development in infants: Implications for occupational therapy. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 65(3), 297-304. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2011.00153