12.3: Learning

Learning Objectives

1. Differentiate between classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory.
2. Identify examples of how conditioning and modeling influence early behaviors and emotional responses.
3. Describe strategies caregivers and professionals can use to support infant and toddler learning.

Infants and toddlers learn rapidly through their interactions with the environment, and three key mechanisms that shape their early learning are classical conditioning (Pavolv), operant conditioning (Watson and Skinner), and social learning (Bandura). Understanding the application of these theories during infancy and toddlerhood provides insight into how young children develop expectations and behaviors in response to their surroundings.

Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning occurs when an infant begins to associate two stimuli, leading to a learned response. One of the most well-known examples in infancy is the use of feeding cues. For instance, a baby may initially suckle only when presented with a bottle or breast. However, over time, they may start sucking reflexively at the sight of a bib or the sound of a caregiver’s voice, as these cues become associated with feeding (Sullivan & Wilson, 2018).

Another example of classical conditioning in infancy involves the development of emotional responses. If a baby repeatedly hears a loud, startling noise (unconditioned stimulus) when a certain toy is present (neutral stimulus). In that case, they may begin to associate the toy with fear (conditioned response), even if the noise is no longer present. This mechanism explains how some early fears develop and highlights the importance of creating positive and predictable environments for infants.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, or learning through rewards and consequences, plays a significant role in shaping the behavior of infants and toddlers. Reinforcement strengthens behaviors, while punishment reduces them (Skinner, 1953).

• Positive Reinforcement, such as smiling, clapping, or verbal praise, encourages infants to repeat actions. For example, if a baby babbles and a caregiver responds excitedly, the infant is more likely to continue babbling, as they associate it with positive social interaction.
• On the contrary, negative reinforcement focuses on removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. For example, when a caregiver picks up a crying infant, the baby learns that crying results in comfort and will likely repeat the behavior when seeking attention or relief.
• While punishment can decrease undesirable behaviors, it is less effective than reinforcement in infancy. For example, an infant who touches an unsafe object and is gently redirected is more likely to learn appropriate behavior than one who is scolded, as they may not yet understand verbal discipline (Lowe et al., 2018).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Mom and baby are interacting. Image by Natalia Blauth on Unsplash.

Applications to Infant and Toddler Learning

Understanding these learning principles helps caregivers and early childhood professionals create nurturing and responsive environments that support development:

1. Establishing routines with predictable associations (e.g., dimming lights before bedtime to signal sleep) helps infants develop expectations and emotional security.
2. Using positive reinforcement (e.g., clapping when a toddler takes their first steps) encourages the development of new skills.
3. Avoiding excessive punishment and instead using gentle guidance and redirection fosters a safe, encouraging learning environment.

By recognizing how classical and operant conditioning shape early experiences, early childhood professionals and caregivers can better support cognitive (and emotional development) in infants and toddlers.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation. Sometimes, particularly when we are unsure of what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A new employee, on their first day of a new job, might eagerly observe how others are acting and try to emulate their behavior to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role models. Newly married couples often rely on roles they may have learned from their parents and begin to act in ways they did not while dating, and then wonder why their relationship has changed.

Do parents socialize children, or do children socialize parents?

Bandura (1986) suggested that there is an interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. There is an interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events, as well as how they influence us. This concept is called reciprocal determinism. An example of this might be the interplay between parents and children. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, but children also influence their parents. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child arrives, they have very different expectations, both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us, and we create our environment.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): A smiling infant playing with toys. Image by OmarMedinaFilms on Pixabay.

References, Contributors and Attributions

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.

Lowe, J. R., Erickson, S. J., Schrader, R., & Nelson, L. (2018). Behavioral reinforcement and early childhood development. Infant Behavior & Development, 52, 1-10.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

Sullivan, R. M., & Wilson, D. A. (2018). The role of classical conditioning in infant learning. Developmental Psychobiology, 60(1), 5-14.