12.4.3: Executive Function

Learning Objectives

1. Define executive function and its core components.
2. Explain how brain maturation and interactions contribute to the emergence of executive function skills in infancy and toddlerhood.
3. Identify activities and experiences that support the development of executive function in infants and toddlers.

Executive function refers to a set of cognitive processes that enable self-regulation, goal-directed behavior, and problem-solving (Diamond, 2013). While executive function skills—such as working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility—become more advanced in later childhood, the foundations for these abilities begin to emerge in infancy and toddlerhood (Garon, Bryson, & Smith, 2008). During this period, infants begin to demonstrate basic self-regulation skills, including the ability to focus on relevant information and engage in early problem-solving behaviors, which will become more refined as their brains continue to develop.

One of the earliest signs of developing executive function is working memory, or the ability to hold and manipulate information over short periods. In infancy, working memory is limited but can be observed in tasks such as object permanence—the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it is out of sight (Baillargeon, 2004). Between 8 and 12 months, infants begin to successfully retrieve hidden objects, demonstrating that they can hold an image of the object in mind long enough to search for it. As toddlers grow, their working memory expands, enabling them to follow simple instructions and recall familiar routines (Gathercole et al., 2019).

Inhibitory Control and Cognitive Flexibility

Inhibitory control, or the ability to suppress impulsive responses, also begins to emerge in early development. Newborns and young infants have little ability to regulate their behaviors and often react immediately to stimuli. However, by the end of the first year, infants begin showing early signs of self-control, such as pausing before reaching for an object when signaled to wait (Hendry, Jones, & Charman, 2016). One classic task used to study inhibitory control in toddlers is the A-not-B task, where an object is repeatedly hidden in one location (A) before being moved to a new location (B). Younger infants often continue searching in the original location due to difficulties inhibiting a previously rewarded response; however, older infants and toddlers begin to succeed as their inhibitory control improves (Diamond, 1985).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). A toddler working a shape sorter. Image by Polesie Toys is licensed by Pexels.

Another key aspect of executive function is cognitive flexibility, which refers to the ability to shift attention between different tasks or perspectives. While young infants tend to focus rigidly on specific stimuli, by the second year of life, toddlers begin to demonstrate greater flexibility in problem-solving and adapting to new situations (Kirkham, Cruess, & Diamond, 2003). For example, a toddler who initially tries to fit a toy through a small opening may adjust their approach by rotating it or selecting a different entry point. This growing adaptability reflects the early development of cognitive flexibility, which will continue expanding through play, exploration, and caregiver interactions.

Influences on Executive Function

The development of executive function in infancy and toddlerhood is shaped by both biological maturation and environmental experiences. The prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for higher-order thinking and self-regulation, undergoes rapid growth during this time (Nelson, Thomas, & De Haan, 2006). However, because these brain regions are still developing, infants and toddlers rely heavily on external support from caregivers to regulate their behaviors and emotions. Responsive parenting—such as providing structure, modeling self-control, and guiding problem-solving efforts—helps strengthen emerging executive function skills (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010). Activities like serve-and-return interactions, in which caregivers and infants engage in back-and-forth exchanges (e.g., responding to babbling, taking turns in simple games), support the development of working memory and attention regulation (Center on the Developing Child, 2011). Additionally, play-based experiences, such as sorting objects, following simple rules, or engaging in pretend play, provide natural opportunities for toddlers to practice executive function skills (Carlson, White, & Davis-Unger, 2014).

References, Contributors and Attributions

Baillargeon, R. (2004). Infants' reasoning about hidden objects: Evidence for early representational abilities. Developmental Science, 7(4), 391-424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00357.x

Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive functioning. Child Development, 81(1), 326-339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01397.x

Carlson, S. M., White, R. E., & Davis-Unger, A. (2014). Evidence for a relation between executive function and pretense representation in preschool children. Cognitive Development, 29(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2013.09.001

Center on the Developing Child. (2011). Building the brain’s “air traffic control” system: How early experiences shape the development of executive function. Harvard University. https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/building-the-brains-air-traffic-control-system-how-early-experiences-shape-the-development-of-executive-function/

Diamond, A. (1985). Development of the ability to use recall to guide action, as indicated by infants’ performance on AB. Child Development, 56(4), 868-883. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130099

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135-168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 31-60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31

Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Willis, C., & Adams, A. M. (2019). Working memory in children: A review of the evidence. Educational Psychology, 39(5), 430-447. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2018.1544567

Hendry, A., Jones, E. J., & Charman, T. (2016). Executive function in the first three years of life: Precursors, predictors, and patterns. Developmental Review, 42, 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.005

Kirkham, N. Z., Cruess, L., & Diamond, A. (2003). Helping children apply their knowledge to their behavior on a dimension-switching task. Developmental Science, 6(5), 449-467. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7687.00300

Nelson, C. A., Thomas, K. M., & De Haan, M. (2006). Neural bases of cognitive development. In D. Kuhn & R. S. Siegler (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and language (6th ed., pp. 3-57). Wiley.