13.7: Contexts of Development

Learning Objectives

1. Explain Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory.
2. Identify how various family structures—such as nuclear, extended, divorced, and stepfamilies—impact infants' and toddlers' development.
3. Evaluate how the quality and consistency of non-parent care influence development.
4. Describe characteristics of high-quality early care settings and their contributions to child well-being.

Development doesn’t happen in a vacuum. Children’s growth is shaped by the environments they’re in, and these environments are often interconnected. One way to think about how different settings influence a child’s development is through Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. As previously discussed, he proposed that development occurs through the interactions between a child and various environments or systems that surround them.

Bronfenbrenner used the term microsystem to describe the settings that directly affect a child, such as their family, school, and peer group. These are the environments where children spend most of their time and where they interact with the people who are most important in their lives. In this section, we’ll take a closer look at some of the key contexts that influence children’s development, including family relationships, divorce, stepfamilies, grandparents, adoption, foster care, and nonparent child care.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model of Child Development. Image hosted on PNGWing is licensed CC BY-NC 4.0

Family Relationships- The Primary Context

At the heart of a child’s microsystem is their family. This is usually the first and most significant environment for a young child. Families provide the foundation for social and emotional learning. The relationships a child has with family members—particularly their caregivers—play a huge role in shaping their early development.

Most children grow up in what is called a nuclear family, which typically consists of two parents and their children. This structure enables close, intimate interactions that are essential for emotional bonding and attachment. However, families come in many shapes and sizes, and each family dynamic influences a child’s development in different ways. For example, extended families, where children live with or have frequent contact with grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, can offer additional emotional support and social connections. This type of family setup often promotes a sense of belonging and community, as children can develop close relationships with multiple family members (Harkness & Super, 2006).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Extended family portrait. Image by Nick Richards is licensed CC BY-SA 2.0

Divorce and Stepfamilies

When it comes to family dynamics, divorce is an important context that can deeply affect infants and toddlers. Divorce is more common than many might think. According to the American Psychological Association (APA), about 40-50% of marriages in the United States end in divorce, which means many children are impacted by this family transition. Divorce can be emotionally challenging, and the impact of parental separation often depends on how the parents manage the change. For younger children, especially infants and toddlers, the disruptions caused by divorce—such as changes in living arrangements, emotional distress, or inconsistent caregiving—can lead to feelings of insecurity and confusion. Studies have shown that children who experience divorce may struggle with attachment issues, emotional regulation, and behavioral difficulties, especially if the divorce leads to less stability in caregiving (Amato, 2000).

Stepfamilies can present additional complexities. When a parent remarries, children may experience a shift in family dynamics and a new set of relationships to navigate. For infants and toddlers, this can mean adjusting to new caregivers, different household routines, and unfamiliar family structures. While some children adjust well, others may struggle to bond with stepparents or step-siblings. Supportive, consistent caregiving from both biological and step-parents can help children adjust and thrive in a step-family context (Ganong & Coleman, 2004).

Grandparents

Grandparents often play a significant role in children’s lives, especially in cultures or situations where grandparents live with or near their grandchildren. In the United States, approximately 2.7 million children are being raised by their grandparents, often due to parental drug abuse, incarceration, or financial instability (Administration for Children and Families, 2019). Grandparents in these situations often become the primary caregivers, providing stability and support for children who may have experienced trauma or neglect in their biological homes. This can be beneficial for children, as they have the opportunity to form strong emotional bonds with older generations. Research suggests that positive relationships with grandparents can enhance a child’s sense of security and provide emotional support (Bengtson et al., 2002).

Adoptive Families

Adoptive families also provide a unique context for development. Adoption can be a source of stability and love for children who may not have experienced a consistent caregiver. However, it can also come with challenges, especially if the child has experienced neglect, abuse, or trauma prior to being adopted. For infants and toddlers, the transition to an adoptive family requires forming new attachments and adjusting to new routines. Consistent caregiving and emotional support are crucial in helping these children develop trust and security (Pinderhughes et al., 2002).

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). A family of eleven, including six adopted children from Ukraine, poses to celebrate National Adoption Awareness Month. Image is hosted by Nara & DVIDS Public Domain Archive in the public domain.

As of 2021, there were about 135,000 adoptions in the United States, with many children placed in homes where they receive care and love that they were deprived of in their biological families (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2022).

Foster Care

Similarly, foster care offers a safe environment for children who cannot live with their biological families. However, foster care often involves frequent moves between homes, which can disrupt attachment and create emotional distress. Research shows that children in foster care are at risk for attachment disorders, especially if they experience multiple placements or inconsistent caregiving (Dozier et al., 2001). In 2024, approximately 365,000 children were in foster care in the United States (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2024). Stable, nurturing foster parents can provide the secure base children need to form healthy attachments.

Non-parent Care

As many families rely on non-parental care, such as early learning programs, Mother's Day Out, or preschool programs, the quality of this care can significantly impact children’s development. High-quality care settings can offer benefits similar to those of a stable home environment. Children in these settings often develop better social and cognitive skills, as they have the opportunity to interact with both caregivers and peers in a supportive atmosphere (Peisner-Feinberg et al., 2001). So what does high quality look like?

Characteristics of good programs include (Levine & Munsch, 2024, p. 241):

• "Low child-to-teacher ratios,
• Small group size,
• Staff with more education and ongoing training,
• Prior experience and education of the director,
• Low teacher turnover,
• Positive teacher-child interactions,
• Accreditation or higher-than-minimum licensing standards,
• Age-appropriate activities,
• Good health and safety practices"

In particular, the development of peer relationships in non-parent child care is an important part of a child’s social growth. Interactions with other children help toddlers and infants learn how to share, communicate, and navigate social situations. These early peer relationships can lay the foundation for the social skills needed later in life (Howes et al., 2008).

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). Warm, responsive classrooms often include professionals who are willing to actively listen to children's thoughts and feelings, as well as take part in their daily routines and play. Image by Heather Carter is used with permission.

Another key element in non-parent child care is the program or classroom culture. A positive classroom environment, where caregivers are warm, responsive, and consistent, helps children feel safe and supported. A supportive, inclusive classroom culture also fosters a sense of community, where children feel that their needs are understood and respected. These experiences contribute to a child’s emotional and social development, supporting their ability to build relationships and develop a positive sense of self (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).

References, Contributors and Attributions

Amato, P. R. (2000). The consequences of divorce for adults and children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(4), 1269-1287. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01269.x

Administration for Children and Families. (2019). The AFCARS report: 2018. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Bengtson, V. L., Cuervo, A. C., & Silverstein, M. (2002). The role of grandparents in the lives of children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(4), 959-971. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00959.x

Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Play and literacy: A balanced approach to promoting early literacy development. The National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2024). National foster care month outreach toolkit. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from: https://www.childwelfare.gov/resourc...reach-toolkit/

Dozier, M., Stovall-McClough, K. C., & Albus, K. E. (2001). Attachment and psychopathology in adulthood. Attachment & Human Development, 3(1), 52-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730010024200

Ganong, L. H., & Coleman, M. (2004). Stepfamily relationships: Development, dynamics, and interventions. Springer Science & Business Media.

Harkness, S., & Super, C. M. (2006). The developmental niche: A conceptualization at the interface of child and culture. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 1289-1292. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.1289

Howes, C., Phillips, D., & Whitebook, M. (2008). Getting the most out of kindergarten: A review of the evidence of the impact of early childhood education on children's school readiness. University of California.

Levine, L. E., & Munsch, J. (2024). Child development from infancy to adolescence: An active learning approach. Sage Publications.

Peisner-Feinberg, E. S., Burchinal, M., Clifford, R. M., & et al. (2001). The relation of preschool child-care quality to children's cognitive and social developmental trajectories through second grade. Child Development, 72(5), 1534-1553. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00364

Pinderhughes, E. E., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (2002). Discipline and child adjustment: The role of parent attitudes and behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 38(2), 213–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.213

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2022). Adoption and foster care analysis and reporting system (AFCARS) report. Administration for Children and Families. Retrieved from: https://acf.gov/cb/research-data-tec...esearch/afcars