15.3.2: Memory

Learning Objectives

1. Identify and describe the three stages of memory.
2. Explain how memory capacities change and improve during early childhood.
3. Distinguish between declarative (semantic and episodic) and non-declarative memory.
4. Define infantile amnesia.
5. Describe memory strategies young children begin to use.
6. Recognize the role of social interaction and music in supporting memory development.

Stages of Memory

Stage 1: Sensory Memory

Based on studies of adults, people with amnesia, and neurological research on memory, researchers have proposed several “types” of memory. Sensory memory (also called the sensory register) is the first stage of the memory system, and it stores sensory input in its raw form for a very brief duration; essentially long enough for the brain to register and start processing the information. Studies of auditory sensory memory show that it lasts about one second in 2-year-olds, two seconds in 3-year-olds, more than two seconds in 4-year-olds, and three to five seconds in 6-year-olds (Glass, Sachse, & von Suchodoletz, 2008). Other researchers have also found that young children hold sounds for a shorter duration than do older children and adults, and that this deficit is not due to attentional differences between these age groups, but reflects differences in the performance of the sensory memory system (Gomes et al., 1999).

Stage 2: Working Memory

The second stage of the memory system is referred to as short-term or working memory. Working memory is the component of memory in which current conscious mental activity occurs. Working memory often requires conscious effort and adequate use of attention to function effectively. As you read earlier, children in this age group struggle with many aspects of attention, which greatly diminishes their ability to juggle multiple pieces of information in memory consciously. The capacity of working memory, that is, the amount of information someone can hold in consciousness, is smaller in young children than in older children and adults. The typical adult and teenager can hold a 7-digit number active in their short-term memory. The typical 5-year-old can hold only a 4-digit number in active memory. This means that the more complex a mental task is, the less efficiently a younger child will be able to pay attention to and actively process information to complete the task.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): A child thinking. Image by Leonid Mamchenkov is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Stage 3: Long-term Memory

The third component of memory is long-term memory, also known as permanent memory. A basic division of long-term memory is between declarative and non-declarative memory.

• Declarative memories, also known as explicit memories, are memories of facts or events that we can consciously recall. Declarative memory is further divided into semantic and episodic memory.
• Semantic memories are memories for facts and knowledge that are not tied to a timeline,
• Episodic memories are tied to specific events in time.
• Non-declarative memories, sometimes referred to as implicit memories, are typically automated skills that do not require conscious recollection.

Personal Narratives

Autobiographical memory is our personal narrative. Adults rarely remember events from the first few years of life due to infantile amnesia. Infantile amnesia refers to the phenomenon in which individuals are unable to recall autobiographical memories from early childhood, typically before the age of 3. This occurs due to the immaturity of brain structures, such as the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, which are essential for memory formation and retrieval. As these brain regions develop and children acquire language and a sense of self, their ability to retain and recall personal experiences improves. By around age 3 to 4, children begin forming lasting episodic memories, although their ability to recall events continues to strengthen throughout early childhood.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): When children share stories about themselves from their earliest years, infantile amnesia impacts how details are represented, causing them to make up information or draw on how they felt versus the details of the actual event. Image by Alliance for Excellence is licensed CC BY-NC 2.0.

Memory Strategies

While young children have remarkable recall for personally meaningful events, their ability to use deliberate memory strategies is still emerging. Two key strategies that support memory development in early childhood are encoding and scripts.

Encoding refers to the process of transforming information into a mental representation that can be stored and recalled later. Young children often rely on basic encoding strategies, such as repetition and visual cues, to aid in remembering information. This is more generally referred to as rehearsal, or repeating new words or facts to reinforce learning. As they grow, they begin to use more sophisticated techniques, such as categorization, where they group related items together to aid recall. For example, a preschooler learning about animals may remember them better by sorting them into categories such as pets, farm animals, zoo animals, or wild animals.

Scripts are structured representations of familiar events that help children remember and anticipate what will happen in routine situations. These mental frameworks allow children to store and retrieve information efficiently by filling in gaps based on past experiences. Young children rely on scripts to remember sequences of events, such as what typically happens during a birthday party or a bedtime routine. Because scripts provide a predictable structure, they help children recall details more easily. For example, a child who frequently visits a restaurant may expect to sit at a table, look at a menu, order food, eat, and then pay the bill.

The Role of Social Interaction

Parents and caregivers play a crucial role in shaping children's memory development. Through elaborative reminiscing, adults guide children in recalling past events by asking open-ended questions, encouraging them to provide details, and linking memories to emotions. This process enhances children's ability to organize and retrieve memories, resulting in richer and more coherent narratives.

Music is another means for creating memories. You probably remember the words to songs like "Old MacDonald," even though you likely haven't sung them in a long time. If you recall, in the song, children have to label animals and make their associated sounds. The connection between sound and memory is one reason we teach children using songs.

References, Contributors and Attributions

Glass, E., Sachse, S., & von Suchodoletz, W. (2008). Development of auditory sensory memory from 2 to 6 years: An MMN study. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115(8), 1221–1229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-008-0088-6

Gomes, H., Molholm, S., Christodoulou, C., Ritter, W., & Cowan, N. (1999). Electrophysiological evidence of developmental changes in the duration of auditory sensory memory. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 294–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.35.1.294