15.8: Promoting Cognitive and Language Development

Learning Objectives

1. Describe key strategies that promote cognitive and language development.
2. Explain the role of early childhood education programs, such as Head Start, in supporting school readiness and long-term outcomes.
3. Identify risk factors that may hinder cognitive and language development

Cognitive and language development in early childhood is influenced by a variety of factors, including environmental stimulation, caregiver interaction, and access to enriching experiences. While many factors can support a child’s growth in these areas, some risks can hinder development. Understanding both the supportive and risk factors can help caregivers and educators create environments that foster optimal learning.

Promoting Cognitive and Language Development

Remember Vygotsky and the zone of proximal development? Children can be assisted in learning language by others who listen attentively, model more accurate pronunciations, and encourage elaboration in their language use. One of the most effective ways to support language growth is through responsive interactions. Engaging in back-and-forth conversations, expanding on children's statements, and asking open-ended questions helps enrich vocabulary and sentence structure. For example, if a child says, "Dog run," a caregiver might respond, "Yes, the big brown dog is running really fast!" This expansion provides a model for more complex syntax and supports the scaffolding process.

Reading aloud is another powerful tool for language development. Books expose children to new vocabulary, diverse sentence structures, and storytelling conventions. Research indicates that shared reading experiences contribute to stronger language skills, particularly when caregivers engage children in discussions about the story (Mol et al., 2008).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). An adult reading a book with children. Image by Ksenia Chernaya is licensed by Pexels.

Additionally, play-based interactions encourage language development. Pretend play, in particular, prompts children to use more advanced language as they negotiate roles, create storylines, and express ideas. Conversations during play support vocabulary growth and enhance communication skills (Weisberg et al., 2013).

Physical and emotional well-being also impact development. Proper nutrition, consistent sleep routines, and a stress-free environment provide a foundation for learning. Positive emotional support from caregivers, including responsive and sensitive interactions, fosters a secure attachment that encourages children to explore and learn with confidence (Bernier et al., 2010).

The Role of Early Childhood Education

Preschool education provides children with foundational skills in language, literacy, numeracy, and social interaction. Studies indicate that children who attend high-quality preschool programs demonstrate stronger pre-reading and math skills compared to peers who do not (Duncan et al., 2007). These early academic advantages can set the stage for success in elementary school and beyond.

In addition to academic benefits, preschool programs support the development of executive functioning skills. Research has shown that children who attend preschool are better prepared to follow instructions, engage in cooperative learning, and navigate classroom expectations (Blair & Raver, 2015). These skills contribute to smoother transitions into kindergarten and higher overall academic achievement.

Head Start

Head Start was launched in 1965 as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s War on Poverty. The program was designed to provide comprehensive early childhood education, health, and nutrition services to low-income children and their families. Since its inception, Head Start has served millions of children across the United States, aiming to reduce educational disparities and promote school readiness.

Research on the effectiveness of Head Start has yielded mixed results; however, overall, studies suggest positive short-term and long-term benefits. The Head Start Impact Study (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2010) found that children enrolled in Head Start demonstrated early gains in language and literacy skills, as well as improved social and emotional development. However, some of these academic advantages appeared to fade by third grade, a phenomenon known as the "fade-out effect." Despite this, other research suggests that Head Start participants experience lasting benefits in adulthood, including higher rates of high school and college completion, better health outcomes, and lower involvement in crime (Deming, 2009).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Children from the Head Start program enjoy a day full of fun activities at the New River Trail. Image by Virgina State Parks is licensed CC BY 2.0.

One key factor influencing the effectiveness of Head Start is program quality. When Head Start centers maintain high standards for teacher training, curriculum design, and classroom interaction, children demonstrate greater long-term benefits. Additionally, family engagement plays a critical role in the program’s success. Head Start encourages parent involvement through workshops, home visits, and support services, reinforcing learning at home and strengthening the parent-child relationship (Yoshikawa et al., 2013).

Long-Term Outcomes of Early Education

The long-term advantages of early childhood education extend beyond academic achievement. Studies show that individuals who attended high-quality early education programs are:

• More likely to be employed, earn higher wages, and contribute positively to society (Heckman et al., 2010).
  • The HighScope Perry Preschool Study, which tracked participants for over 40 years, found that children who attended high-quality preschool programs had higher high school graduation rates, increased earnings, and lower rates of incarceration compared to those who did not attend (Schweinhart et al., 2005).
• Experience reduced rates of special education placement and grade retention, which can result in cost savings for public education systems (Barnett, 2011).
• Promotes better health. Participants in early education programs are more likely to engage in preventive healthcare, have better nutrition habits, and experience lower rates of chronic diseases in adulthood (Campbell et al., 2014).

Risk Factors

Poverty

Several risk factors can negatively impact cognitive and language development in early childhood. One of the most significant is poverty, which can limit access to educational resources, high-quality childcare, and enriching experiences (Fernald et al., 2013). Children from low-income backgrounds may have less exposure to books, complex language, and stimulating conversations, which can contribute to vocabulary and literacy gaps by the time they enter school.

Even before children enter kindergarten, the mathematical knowledge of children from low-income backgrounds lags far behind that of children from more affluent backgrounds. Ramani and Siegler (2008) hypothesized that this difference is due to the children in middle- and upper-income families engaging more frequently in numerical activities, for example, playing numerical board games such as Chutes and Ladders.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). A variation of Chutes and Ladders is called Snakes and Ladders. Image by Jacqui Brown is licensed CC BY-SA 2.0.

Chutes and Ladders is a game with a number in each square; children start at number one and spin a spinner or throw a die to determine how far to move their token. Playing this numerical board game for roughly 1 hour, distributed over a 2-week period, improved low-income children’s knowledge of numerical magnitudes, ability to read printed numbers, and skill at learning novel arithmetic problems. The gains lasted for months after the game-playing experience (Ramani & Siegler, 2008; Siegler & Ramani, 2009). An advantage of this type of educational intervention is that it has minimal if any cost—a parent could just draw a game on a piece of paper.

Adverse Childhood Experiences

Chronic stress and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), such as neglect, abuse, or household instability, can impair cognitive development by affecting brain structures involved in learning and memory (Shonkoff & Garner, 2012). Children exposed to high levels of stress may struggle with attention, self-regulation, and language processing.

Limited caregiver interaction also poses a risk to language development. Children who experience fewer verbal exchanges with adults may develop smaller vocabularies and weaker language comprehension skills (Hart & Risley, 1995). Excessive screen time, if used without interactive engagement, can replace valuable face-to-face communication and hinder language acquisition (Madigan et al., 2020).

Impairments and Developmental Delays

Hearing impairments, speech delays, and neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can also affect language development. Early identification and intervention, including speech therapy and language-rich environments, can help mitigate some of these challenges and support a child's progress (Tager-Flusberg et al., 2009).

References, Contributors and Attributions

Barnett, W. S. (2011). Effectiveness of early educational intervention. Science, 333(6045), 975-978. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204534

Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self‐regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children's executive functioning. Child Development, 81(1), 326-339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01397.x

Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2015). School readiness and self-regulation: A developmental psychobiological approach. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 711-731. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015221

Campbell, F., Conti, G., Heckman, J. J., Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Pungello, E., & Pan, Y. (2014). Early childhood investments substantially boost adult health. Science, 343(6178), 1478-1485. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1248429

Deming, D. (2009). Early childhood intervention and life-cycle skill development: Evidence from Head Start. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(3), 111-134. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.1.3.111

Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., Pagani, L. S., Feinstein, L., Engel, M., Brooks-Gunn, J., Sexton, H., Duckworth, K., & Japel, C. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428-1446. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428

Fernald, A., Marchman, V. A., & Weisleder, A. (2013). SES differences in language processing skill and vocabulary are evident at 18 months. Developmental Science, 16(2), 234-248. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12019

Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

Heckman, J. J., Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Savelyev, P. A., & Yavitz, A. (2010). The rate of return to the HighScope Perry Preschool Program. Journal of Public Economics, 94(1-2), 114-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.11.001

Madigan, S., Browne, D., Racine, N., Mori, C., & Tough, S. (2020). Association between screen time and children’s performance on a developmental screening test. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(3), 244-250. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5056

Mol, S. E., Bus, A. G., de Jong, M. T., & Smeets, D. J. H. (2008). Added value of dialogic parent-child book readings: A meta-analysis. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 7-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280701838603

Ramani, G. B., & Siegler, R. S. (2008). Promoting broad and stable improvements in low-income children’s numerical knowledge through playing number board games. Child Development, 79(2), 375-394. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01131.x

Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., & Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The HighScope Perry Preschool Study through age 40. HighScope Press.

Shonkoff, J. P., & Garner, A. S. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232-e246. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2663

Siegler, R. S., & Ramani, G. B. (2009). Playing linear numerical board games promotes low‐income children’s numerical development. Developmental Science, 12(5), 852-861. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00872.x

Tager-Flusberg, H., Paul, R., & Lord, C. (2009). Language and communication in autism. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (Vol. 1, pp. 335-364). John Wiley & Sons.

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2010). Head Start Impact Study: Final report. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/opre/researc...-and-follow-up

Weisberg, D. S., Zosh, J. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2013). Playful learning: Leveraging the science of learning to promote children’s development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(4), 162-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.02.003

Yoshikawa, H., Weiland, C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Burchinal, M. R., Espinosa, L. M., Gormley, W. T., Ludwig, J., Magnuson, K., Phillips, D., & Zaslow, M. J. (2013). Investing in our future: The evidence base on preschool education. Society for Research in Child Development & Foundation for Child Development. https://fcd-us.org/resources/evidence-base-preschool