16.1: Emotional Development

Learning Objectives

1. In relationship to Erikson's stage of initiative vs. guilt, describe how caregiver responses influence a child’s confidence and independence.
2. Differentiate guilt from shame and explain their impact on children’s emotional development.
3. Explain the development of emotional regulation.
4. Identify strategies caregivers can use to support emotional understanding and control.

Erikson's Initiative vs. Guilt Stage

Psychologist Erik Erikson argues that children in early childhood go through a stage of “initiative vs. guilt”. The previous stage of trust and autonomy develops into a desire to take initiative, think of ideas, and take action. If the child is placed in an environment where he/she can explore, make decisions, and initiate activities, they have achieved initiative. On the other hand, if the child is put in an environment where initiation is repressed through criticism and control, he/she will develop a sense of guilt. Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt highlights the importance of emotional experiences in shaping children's sense of confidence and independence.

For example, children may want to build a fort with the cushions from the living room couch, open a lemonade stand in the driveway, or make a zoo with their stuffed animals and issue tickets to those who want to come. Or they may just want to get themselves ready for bed without any assistance. To reinforce taking initiative, caregivers should offer praise for the child’s efforts and avoid being critical of messes or mistakes. Soggy washrags and toothpaste left in the sink pale in comparison to the smiling face of a five-year-old who emerges from the bathroom with clean teeth and pajamas! ⁸

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Children playing in the sand. Image is in the public domain.

Secondary Emotions

One important aspect of emotional development is the distinction between primary and secondary emotions. Primary emotions, such as happiness and fear, are present early in life and are understood by young children with increasing accuracy. By the age of five, children can recognize and interpret emotions at levels similar to those of adults (Rodger et al., 2015). However, secondary emotions (including pride, guilt, shame, jealousy, etc.) require a more nuanced understanding of oneself and social expectations, and they take longer to develop (Park & Lewis, 2021). These secondary emotions emerge in toddlerhood, but increase drastically in early childhood as children gain awareness of societal standards and begin to evaluate their own actions in relation to those expectations.

Guilt and shame are often confused, but have distinct developmental and psychological implications. Guilt arises when a child recognizes that they have done something wrong and feels motivated to repair the situation or change their behavior. It is associated with feelings of remorse and a desire to make amends. In contrast, shame is a more global emotion, in which the child perceives themselves as inherently bad or unworthy, rather than focusing on a specific action (Tangney et al., 2007). While guilt can encourage positive moral development and prosocial behavior, excessive shame can lead to withdrawal, low self-esteem, and difficulty forming secure relationships. Research suggests that guilt typically emerges in early childhood as children begin to understand cause and effect in their actions. In contrast, shame develops later as self-awareness and social comparison become more pronounced (Lewis, 2016).

Emotional Regulation

As children navigate these emotional experiences, they also develop emotional regulation skills, which involve managing their emotional responses to various situations and events. Emotional regulation is crucial for both social success and academic readiness. It encompasses the ability to control impulses, adjust emotional intensity, and respond appropriately to social cues. Caregivers play a key role in fostering these skills by modeling healthy emotional expression, providing a supportive environment, and teaching strategies such as labeling emotions, using calming techniques, and encouraging problem-solving (Thompson, 2019). When children are able to talk about their feelings, they can both experience and express their feelings in less extreme ways, thus reducing the likelihood of temper tantrums.

Responsive caregiving also helps children develop emotional intelligence, which refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage one’s own emotions while also responding to the emotions of others (Denham, Bassett, & Zinsser, 2019). Strong emotional intelligence in early childhood is associated with improved social relationships, enhanced academic achievement, and better overall mental health in later years.

References, Contributors and Attributions

8. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Antoinette Ricardo)

Denham, S. A., Bassett, H. H., & Zinsser, K. (2019). "How preschoolers' social–emotional learning predicts their early school success: Developing theory, guiding practice, and ensuring equity." Child Development Perspectives, 13(4), 225-231. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12357

Lewis, M. (2016). "Self-conscious emotions: Embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt." In L. Balter & C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp. 319-336). Psychology Press.

Park, Y., & Lewis, C. (2021). "The emergence of self-conscious emotions in early childhood: Understanding pride, guilt, and shame." Emotion Review, 13(2), 87-101. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073920978614

Rodger, H., Vizioli, L., Ouyang, X., & Caldara, R. (2015). "Mapping the development of facial expression recognition." Developmental Science, 18(6), 926-939. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12281

Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). "Moral emotions and moral behavior." Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psyc....102904.190245

Thompson, R. A. (2019). "Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition." Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 84(3), 7-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12403