16.2.2: Gender Identity, Constancy and Roles

Learning Objectives

1. Analyze the role of biological, psychological, and social influences in the development of gender identity and gender roles in early childhood.

Gender identity refers to an individual's internal sense of being male, female, or another gender, which may or may not align with their biological sex (American Psychological Association [APA], 2021). In early childhood, gender identity begins to emerge as children recognize gender differences and start categorizing themselves and others within societal gender roles. By the age of two, most children can identify themselves as a boy or a girl, and by preschool age, they develop a deeper interest in gender-related behaviors and societal expectations (Martin & Ruble, 2004).

Historical Perspectives

Freud and the Phallic Stage

Freud believed that masculinity and femininity were learned during the phallic stage of psychosexual development. According to Freud, during the phallic stage, the child develops an attraction to the opposite-sex parent. Still, after recognizing that they cannot actually be romantically involved with that parent, the child learns to model their own behavior after the same-sex parent. The child develops their sense of masculinity or femininity from this resolution. And, according to Freud, a person who does not exhibit gender-appropriate behavior, such as a woman who competes with men for jobs or a man who lacks self-assurance and dominance, has not successfully completed this stage of development. Consequently, such a person continues to struggle with his or her own gender identity.

Chodorow and Mothering

Chodorow, a Neo-Freudian, believed that mothering promotes gender stereotypic behavior. Mothers often push their sons away too soon, directing their attention toward problem-solving and independence. As a result, sons grow up confident in their own abilities but uncomfortable with intimacy. Girls are kept dependent too long and are given unnecessary and even unwelcome assistance from their mothers. Girls learn to underestimate their abilities and lack assertiveness, but feel comfortable with intimacy.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): A boy showing independence and confidence. Image by Adam Jones is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): A girl showing dependence and comfort within a relationship. Image by Sai De Silva is licensed CC0.

Both of these models assume that early childhood experiences result in lifelong gender self-concepts. However, gender socialization is a process that continues throughout life. Children, teens, and adults can refine and modify their sense of self based on their gender.

Current Perspectives

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory

From a behaviorist perspective, gender identity is shaped through reinforcement and modeling. Social learning theory (Bandura, 1986) suggests that children learn gender-appropriate behaviors by observing and imitating the behaviors of parents, teachers, friends, peers, schools, religious institutions, media, and others. Reinforcement plays a crucial role, as behaviors that align with gender norms are often rewarded, while those that deviate may be discouraged (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). For example, a boy praised for playing with trucks but discouraged from playing with dolls internalizes societal expectations of gender.

Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory builds upon social learning by emphasizing cognitive processes, including attention, retention, and motivation (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Children actively engage with their environments, selecting role models and internalizing gender norms based on observed rewards and punishments. This perspective highlights how media, culture, and personal agency interact to shape gender identity over time.

Cognitive Developmental Theory

Cognitive developmental theory (Kohlberg, 1966) posits that children actively construct their understanding of gender in a series of stages.

1. First, they develop gender identity (awareness of being male or female),
2. followed by gender stability (understanding that gender remains consistent over time), and
3. finally, gender constancy (realization that gender is invariant despite changes in appearance or activities). This theory suggests that as cognitive abilities mature, children become increasingly motivated to adhere to gender norms.

Gender Schema Theory

Gender schema theory (Bem, 1981; Martin & Halverson, 1981) suggests that children develop mental frameworks, or schemas, that guide their understanding of gender roles. These schemas influence how they interpret information, shaping their preferences and behaviors. For instance, a child who perceives certain toys as "for boys" or "for girls" will selectively engage with activities that align with their gender schema.

Gender Self-Socialization Model

The gender self-socialization model (Tobin et al., 2010) integrates cognitive and social influences, emphasizing how children actively participate in shaping their gender identity, which includes their thoughts and feelings about belonging to a particular gender. Rather than passively absorbing societal norms, children interpret gender cues based on personal motivations, social feedback, and their developing self-concept. This model explains why some children rigidly adhere to traditional gender norms, while others exhibit greater flexibility in their gender expression.

Tobin and researchers describe five dimensions of gender identity:

1. Membership knowledge- a child's awareness and understanding of their gender category (e.g., knowing they are a boy or a girl).
2. Gender typicality- the extent to which a child perceives themselves as similar to others of the same gender traits, behaviors, and/or preferences.
3. Gender contentment - satisfaction with the assigned gender and how comfortable the child feels within that identity.
4. Felt pressure to gender conformity- the degree to which a child experiences external and internal pressure to adhere to traditional gender norms.
5. Intergroup bias- expectations experienced from self and others for adhering to gender stereotypes (Tobin et.al, 2010, p. 608).

In the United States, there are stereotypes that boys should be strong, forceful, active, dominant, and rational, and that girls should be pretty, subordinate, unintelligent, emotional, and gabby. Often, these stereotypes are portrayed in children’s toys, books, commercials, video games, movies, television shows, and music. While media and marketing are making attempts to shift away from this, unfortunately, it still exists.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Store shelves filled with pink and purple colors and girls’ toys. Image by Janet McKnight is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Store shelves filled with primary colors and boys’ toys. Image by Janet McKnight is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

In adulthood, these differences are reflected in income gaps between men and women where women working full-time earn about 74 percent the income of men, in higher rates of women suffering rape and domestic violence, higher rates of eating disorders for females, and in higher rates of violent death for men in young adulthood. Each of these differences will be explored further in subsequent chapters. ¹³

Intersectionality and Gender Identity Development

Intersectionality, a concept introduced by Crenshaw (1989), acknowledges that gender identity does not exist in isolation but is shaped by overlapping social identities, including race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and disability. Children’s experiences of gender can vary widely depending on cultural norms and societal expectations within different communities.

For example, research indicates that Black and Latinx children may experience unique gendered socialization processes influenced by family values, cultural traditions, and systemic biases (Rogers et al., 2021). Similarly, children with disabilities may encounter different expectations regarding gender expression and identity due to societal perceptions of ability and independence (Goodley, 2016). Understanding gender development through an intersectional lens allows educators and caregivers to create more inclusive environments that recognize and affirm diverse gender experiences.

Transgender Identity in Early Childhood

For some children, gender identity does not align with their biological sex, leading to what is now recognized as transgender identity. Research indicates that transgender children, even in early childhood, often express a consistent, insistent, and persistent identification with a gender different from their assigned sex at birth (Olson et al., 2015). Gender dysphoria, the distress associated with this incongruence, can emerge early, with some children expressing discomfort with gendered expectations by age three or four (APA, 2021).

Supportive parenting and affirming environments play a crucial role in the well-being of transgender children. Studies suggest that children allowed to express their gender identity freely experience lower levels of anxiety and depression compared to those who face rejection or pressure to conform (Durwood, McLaughlin, & Olson, 2017). Ongoing research continues to explore the complex interplay between biological, cognitive, and social factors in transgender identity development.

References, Contributors and Attributions

13. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0; Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

American Psychological Association. (2021). Guidelines for psychological practice with transgender and gender nonconforming people. APA Publishing.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.

Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354–364.

Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713.

Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(1), 139-167.

Durwood, L., McLaughlin, K. A., & Olson, K. R. (2017). Mental health and self-worth in socially transitioned transgender youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(2), 116-123.

Goodley, D. (2016). Disability studies: An interdisciplinary introduction. Sage.

Kohlberg, L. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of children's sex-role concepts and attitudes. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences. Stanford University Press.

Olson, K. R., Key, A. C., & Eaton, N. R. (2015). Gender cognition in transgender children. Psychological Science, 26(4), 467-474.

Rogers, L. O., Scott, M. A., & Way, N. (2021). Racial-ethnic identity and gender identity among Black and Latinx adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 57(2), 192-204.