16.3: Social Development

Learning Objectives

1. Explain how relationships contribute to social development in early childhood.
2. Identify key mechanisms for social understanding.

Developing Social Understanding

Children’s relationships at home and within peer groups significantly shape their social and emotional development. Through these relationships, children form expectations for specific individuals, develop an understanding of appropriate interactions with adults and peers, and construct a self-concept based on how others respond to them. These social connections serve as key contexts for emotional growth and cognitive development.

Even in infancy, children demonstrate an awareness that others have mental states—such as perceptions, emotions, and desires—that influence behavior and may differ from their own. Experimental research indicates that by late preschool years, children understand that beliefs can be mistaken, that memories influence emotions, and that emotions can be concealed from others (Wellman, 2011). This growing social understanding is closely linked to advancements in theory of mind—the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Music and movement is a good tool to help children learn about others, as well as themselves. Image is licensed CC BY-NC 4.0.

Mechanisms of Social Understanding

Young children develop social understanding through keen observation of others, drawing inferences from emotional expressions, language, and behavior. For instance, children learn that what their caregiver is looking at may reflect their thoughts or intentions (Gopnik, Meltzoff, & Kuhl, 2001). This ability is particularly pronounced in relationships with familiar caregivers, aligning with the principles of attachment theory.

Language development plays a vital role in refining social understanding, as children gain words to describe mental states (e.g., “happy,” “angry”) and engage in conversations that reinforce these concepts. Parents contribute to this process by discussing mental states explicitly, helping children connect emotions to experiences. For example, statements like “Your sister was sad because she thought Daddy was coming home” scaffold children’s comprehension of emotions and false beliefs (Thompson, 2006b).

Some researchers propose that infants possess an innate ability to perceive people as entities with internal mental lives, which helps them interpret behavior in terms of underlying thoughts and emotions (Leslie, 1994). This biological preparedness may serve as a foundation upon which early experiences and interactions build an increasingly sophisticated social cognition.

Prosocial Behaviors

Prosocial behaviors are voluntary actions intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing, comforting, donating, volunteering, and cooperating. In early childhood, these behaviors begin to emerge more consistently as children's social and emotional understanding becomes more advanced. Around the ages of 2 to 3, children may start to show empathy-based responses, such as offering a toy to a peer who is upset or attempting to comfort someone who is crying. These early behaviors are often modeled after and encouraged by adult responses, particularly those of caregivers, who play a vital role in promoting prosocial development (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Knafo-Noam, 2015).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). A preschool boy engages in prosocial behavior by helping a classmate put her sandal back on. Image by Heather Carter is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.

As children's cognitive abilities mature, they become better able to take the perspective of others and understand emotions, both of which are foundational for prosocial development. Emotion understanding enables children to recognize when others are in need, while perspective-taking helps them respond appropriately. Research has shown that children who demonstrate greater emotional regulation and empathy are also more likely to engage in helping and cooperative behaviors with peers (Brownell, 2013). For example, preschoolers who can manage their own emotional responses during conflict are better equipped to resolve disputes in ways that maintain positive peer relationships.

Prosocial behavior in early childhood is also influenced by temperament, parenting style, and the social context in which the child is raised. Children who experience warm and responsive caregiving are more likely to exhibit concern for others and demonstrate helping behaviors (Kochanska, 2002). Additionally, peer interactions during play provide important opportunities to practice sharing, negotiation, problem-solving, and turn-taking. These repeated social exchanges contribute to children's growing understanding of fairness, empathy, and cooperation.

Studies have linked early prosocial behavior to later academic success, social competence, and even mental health outcomes (Caputi, Lecce, Pagnin, & Banerjee, 2012). Adults can foster prosocial tendencies by modeling kindness, labeling emotions, encouraging problem-solving, and reinforcing caring behaviors. As children develop a sense of moral reasoning and emotional understanding, their capacity for prosocial action deepens, forming an important part of their social-emotional competence.

References, Contributions and Attributions

Brownell, C. A. (2013). Early development of prosocial behavior: Current perspectives. Infant and Child Development, 22(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1773

Caputi, M., Lecce, S., Pagnin, A., & Banerjee, R. (2012). Longitudinal effects of theory of mind on later peer relations: The role of prosocial behavior. Developmental Psychology, 48(1), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025402

Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2015). Prosocial development. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science (7th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 610–656). Wiley.

Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. (2001). The scientist in the crib: What early learning tells us about the mind. HarperCollins.

Kochanska, G. (2002). Committed compliance, moral self, and internalization: A mediational model. Developmental Psychology, 38(3), 339–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.3.339

Leslie, A. M. (1994). ToMM, ToBy, and Agency: Core architecture and domain specificity. In L. Hirschfeld & S. Gelman (Eds.), Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture (pp. 119–148). Cambridge University Press.

Thompson, R. A. (2006b). Conversation and developing understanding: Emotional and moral discourse. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 789–857). Wiley.

Wellman, H. M. (2011). Developing a theory of mind. Psychology Press.