19.4.2: Diverse Families

Learning Objectives

1. Identify common family structures experienced by children.
2. Describe experiences and outcomes for children in diverse family structures.
3. Describe how family relationship quality affects children's adjustment more than family structure.
4. Explain common custody arrangements and how children adjust to divorce.

Family structures have become increasingly diverse, and children may grow up in a variety of family forms. Although different family structures present different experiences, research consistently shows that the quality of family relationships has a more substantial impact on children’s adjustment than the specific type of family arrangement.

Single-Parent Families

Single-parent families, most often headed by mothers, are a common family form in the United States. In 2022, 39.8% of all births were to unmarried women, many of whom were cohabiting with a partner (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024). Single parenthood can arise for several reasons, including having a child outside of marriage, divorce, or the death of a parent. Each pathway to single parenthood presents distinct challenges and support systems for children.

Children raised in single-parent households may face greater economic challenges, as single-parent families are more likely to experience lower household incomes compared to two-parent families. Single parents may also experience higher levels of stress due to the demands of balancing work, childcare, and household management.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Single parenthood can occur for various reasons, but all single-parent households face their own unique set of challenges. Image is in the public domain.

On average, children in single-parent families are at greater risk for academic difficulties and behavioral problems compared to children in two-parent families (Amato, 2005). However, most children in single-parent homes adjust well, especially when they have strong, supportive relationships with the custodial parent and access to extended family, after-school programs, or community support services. The presence of a consistent, emotionally available parent remains a critical protective factor.

Co-Parenting and Cohabitation

Co-parenting refers to the ways in which two or more adults share the duties of raising a child, regardless of whether they live together. Co-parenting can occur within intact families, following divorce, or in other family arrangements such as joint custody or extended family households.

Effective co-parenting is characterized by quality communication regarding the child's care and shared decision-making. Positive co-parenting relationships are associated with better outcomes for children. In contrast, high-conflict or inconsistent co-parenting can undermine children’s sense of security and contribute to adjustment difficulties.

Cohabitation, where unmarried partners live together, has become more prevalent. As of 2023, approximately 9.1% of U.S. adults were cohabiting, up from 3.7% in 1996. Among adults aged 18 to 44, 59% have cohabited at some point, surpassing the 50% who have ever been married. While cohabitation can provide a stable environment for children, the outcomes often depend on the quality and stability of the parental relationship.

Divorce and Custody Arrangements

Divorce is a significant life change for many families and can have important effects on children. In the United States, the divorce rate was approximately 2.5 divorces per 1,000 people in 2022 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024). It is estimated that around 40% of children will experience the divorce of their parents before reaching adulthood (Amato, 2010).

The experience of divorce can be disruptive, bringing changes in living arrangements, financial stability, family routines, and emotional security. Children may initially experience trauma related to loss, confusion, or fear about the future. Feelings of sadness, anger, loyalty conflicts, and anxiety are common. However, many children also demonstrate adaptation over time as they adjust to new family dynamics.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Divorce can lead to both trauma and adaptation for children. Image is licensed CC BY-NC 4.0.

Custody arrangements after divorce can vary:

1. Sole custody places the child primarily with one parent while the other typically has visitation rights.
2. Joint custody allows both parents to share decision-making (legal custody) or share physical time with the child (physical custody).
3. Birdnesting is a less common arrangement in which the child remains in the family home while the parents rotate living there.

Children tend to adjust more successfully to divorce when certain protective factors are present. Research consistently shows that low parental conflict, supportive relationships with both parents, and stability in routines and schooling are key predictors of better outcomes (Kelly & Emery, 2003).

• Reassuring children that they are loved and not responsible for the separation.
• Maintaining consistent routines and providing emotional security.
• Encouraging healthy relationships with both parents whenever possible.
• Communicating clearly and calmly about changes, while being honest in an age-appropriate way.
• Seeking outside counseling support when children show signs of ongoing distress.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Maintaining a quality relationship with both parents helps children cope with divorce and the associated changes in their family life. Image by Ron Lach is licensed by Pexels.

Stepfamilies and Blended Families

Stepfamilies and blended families are formed when a parent remarries or partners with someone who is not the child's biological parent. These families often undergo a period of adjustment as they negotiate family roles and relationships.

Children in stepfamilies may face challenges related to shifts in family dynamics and perceived loyalties. Research shows that children who feel close to their stepparent and experience consistent, supportive parenting are more likely to adjust well over time. Adjustment can vary by age, with younger children often adapting more easily to blended family structures than adolescents, who may resist changes to family roles and routines.

Gay and Lesbian Parents

Same-sex parent families are an increasingly visible part of the family landscape. As of 2019, approximately 114,000 same-sex couples were raising children in the United States. Among these, about 24% of female same-sex couples and 8% of male same-sex couples were parenting children under 18 years old. Same-sex couples grow their families through various pathways, including adoption, foster care, assisted reproductive technologies (ART), and surrogacy. Notably, same-sex couples are four times more likely than opposite-sex couples to have adopted or stepchildren; in 2019, 43.3% of children of same-sex couples were adopted or stepchildren.

Extensive research indicates that children raised by same-sex parents fare as well as those raised by heterosexual parents across various measures of health and well-being. Studies have found no significant differences in mental health, social adjustment, or academic performance between children of same-sex and heterosexual parents. Major professional organizations, including the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Psychological Association, have affirmed that parental sexual orientation does not negatively impact child development.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). Children who grow up with gay parents are likely to be as happy and well-adjusted as children of heterosexual parents. It is the quality of the parent-child relationship rather than the parents' sexual orientation that is most important to a child's development. Image by RDNE Stock Project is licensed by Pexels.

Concerns that children of same-sex parents may experience confusion about gender roles or identity are not supported by empirical evidence. Research indicates that these children conform to gender-typical behaviors and interests at similar rates as their peers with heterosexual parents. A study published in the New England Journal of Medicine found no differences in gender identity development between children raised by lesbian mothers and those raised by heterosexual parents (Gartrell et.al, 2018).

References, Contributors and Attributions

Amato, P. R. (2005). The impact of family formation change on the cognitive, social, and emotional well-being of the next generation. The Future of Children, 15(2), 75–96. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2005.0012

Amato, P. R. (2010). Research on divorce: Continuing trends and new developments. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 650–666. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00723.x

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). National marriage and divorce rate trends. National Center for Health Statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/marriage-divorce.htm

Gartrell, N., Bos, H., & Koh, A. (2018). National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study — Mental health of adult offspring. The New England Journal of Medicine, 379(4), 297–299. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1805637

Kelly, J. B., & Emery, R. E. (2003). Children's adjustment following divorce: Risk and resilience perspectives. Family Relations, 52(4), 352–362. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00352.x

U.S. Census Bureau. (2020). Fifteen percent of same-sex couples have children in their household. https://www.census.gov/library/stori...household.html