5.4: Psychosocial Development In Early Childhood - Self-Concept and Gender
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Self-Concept
Figure 5.4.1: A child sees itself in a mirror. (CC BY; Unknown via Flickr)
Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. A self-concept or idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel is a social process that involves taking into consideration how others view us. It might be said, then, that in order to develop a sense of self, you must have interaction with others. Interactionist theorists, Cooley and Mead offer two interesting explanations of how a sense of self develops.
Interactionism and Views of Self
Cooley - The Looking-Glass Self
Charles Horton Cooley (1964) suggests that our self-concept comes from looking at how others respond to us. This process, known as the looking-glass self involves looking at how others seem to view us and interpreting this as we make judgments about whether we are good or bad, strong or weak, resilient or not, and so on. Of course, we do not always interpret their responses accurately so our self-concept is not simply a mirror reflection of the views of others. After forming an initial self-concept, we may use it as a mental filter screening out those responses that do not seem to fit our ideas of who we are. So compliments may be negated, for example. Think of times in your life when you feel self-conscious. The process of the looking-glass self is pronounced when we are preschoolers, or perhaps when we are in a new school or job or are taking on a new role in our personal lives and are trying to gauge our own performances. When we feel more sure of who we are we focus less on how we appear to others.
Mead - The "I" and the "Me"
Herbert Mead (1967) offers an explanation of how we develop a social sense of self by being able to see ourselves through the eyes of others. There are two parts of the self: the “I” which is the part of the self that is spontaneous, creative, innate, and is not concerned with how others view us and the “me” or the social definition of who we are.
When we are born, we are all “I” and act without concern about how others view us, consistent with Freud's id. But the socialized self begins when we are able to consider how one important person views us. This initial stage is called “taking the role of the significant other”. For example, a child may pull a cat’s tail and be told by their caregiver, “No! Don’t do that, that’s bad” while the adult points and wags their finger. Later, the child may mimic the same behavior toward the self and say aloud, “No, that’s bad” while pointing and wagging their own finger. What has happened? The child is able to see themselves through the eyes of the caregiver. As the child grows and is exposed to many situations and rules of culture, that child begins to view the self in the eyes of many others through cultural norms or rules. This is referred to as “taking the role of the generalized other” and results in a sense of self with many dimensions. The child comes to have a sense of self as a student, a friend, and so on.
Exaggerated Sense of Self
One of the ways to gain a clearer sense of self is to exaggerate those qualities that are to be incorporated into the self. Preschoolers often like to exaggerate their own qualities or to seek validation as the biggest or smartest or child who can jump the highest. This exaggeration tends to be replaced by a more realistic sense of self in middle childhood.
Self-Esteem
Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. Self-concept is our self-description according to various categories, such as our external and internal qualities. In contrast, self-esteem is an evaluative judgment about who we are. The emergence of cognitive skills in this age group results in improved perceptions of the self, but they tend to focus on external qualities, which are referred to as the categorical self . When researchers ask young children to describe themselves, their descriptions tend to include physical descriptors, preferred activities, and favorite possessions. Thus, the self-description of a 3-year-old might be a 3-year-old girl with red hair, who likes to play with blocks. However, even children as young as three know there is more to themselves than these external characteristics.
Harter and Pike (1984) challenged the method of measuring personality with an open-ended question as they felt that language limitations were hindering the ability of young children to express their self-knowledge. They suggested a change to the method of measuring self-concept in young children, whereby researchers provide statements that ask whether something is true of the child (e.g., “I like to boss people around”, “I am grumpy most of the time”). They discovered that in early childhood, children answer these statements in an internally consistent manner, especially after the age of four (Goodvin, Meyer, Thompson & Hayes, 2008) and often give similar responses to what others (parents and teachers) say about the child (Brown, Mangelsdorf, Agathen, & Ho, 2008; Colwell & Lindsey, 2003).
Young children tend to have a generally positive self-image. This optimism is often the result of a lack of social comparison when making self-evaluations (Ruble, Boggiano, Feldman, & Loeble, 1980), and with a comparison between what the child once could do to what they can do now (Kemple, 1995). However, this does not mean that preschool children are exempt from negative self-evaluations. Preschool children with insecure attachments to their caregivers tend to have lower self-esteem at age four (Goodvin et al., 2008). Maternal negative affect (emotional state) was also found by Goodwin and her colleagues to produce more negative self-evaluations in preschool children.
Gender
Gender Vs Sex
Gender identity is a complex topic that we could cover over an entire course if we had the time. And it is a concept that is in transition as traditionally accepted definitions are being replaced by an understanding that is more reflective of the diversity of the human experience. Consequently, many texts will include references that are clearly outdated and the body of relevant research is only starting to accumulate. Freud's view of gender, for example, reflects the time in which he lived.
Most Western societies operate on the idea that gender is a binary—that there are essentially two genders (men and women) based on two sexes (male and female), and that everyone must fit one or the other. At birth, in the United States, for example, babies are generally assigned "male or female" based on physical characteristics. This refers to the " sex " of the child. When children are able to express themselves, they will generally declare themselves to be a boy or a girl (or somewhere in between or none at all); this is their " gender identity ." In other words, "sex" is assigned at birth based on biological characteristics, and "gender", a social construct, emerges later.
Are there more than two genders?
Many children's gender identity aligns with their biological sex (called " cisgender "). Preschool-aged children become increasingly interested in finding out the differences and similarities between genders both physically and in terms of what activities are deemed by those around them as "acceptable". While 2-year-olds can identify some differences in gender, preschoolers become more interested in what it means to be a certain gender and will typically self-identify by declaring their gender (or sometimes non-gender). This self-identification or gender identity is followed sometime later with "gender constancy" or the sense that gender does not change (for some). Gender roles or the "rights and expectations that are associated with gender in a society" are learned throughout childhood and into adulthood in a multitude of ways. Think, for just a moment, about some of the messages YOU were given by caregivers, commercial ads, schools, and society about gender. What were some of the messages you were given or even observed? They may even seem subtle to you at first, but upon reflection, you may realize that the messages we receive about gender are vast and far-reaching. Are the messages "good?" Are they"bad?" As so much that we study in this course indicates: It depends!
Let's explore a bit further. There are an overwhelming amount of examples of another or “third gender” in cultures in the past. Here is an excerpt of an article offered through Penn State University:
The article states: In nearly all of human history and, in particular, human culture, we have recognized and integrated at least two genders. For most societies, this means labeling two sexes (male/female) and two genders (man/woman)... however cases of a “third gender” are well documented in multiple societies, as well.
- In indigenous Hawaii, before its colonization, there was a long-standing multiple gender tradition, where the mahu could be a male or female biologically, but decide to inhabit a gender role either opposite theirs, somewhere in between the traditional sex roles, or even both masculine and feminine roles. Instead of being written off as outcasts, as persons of atypical gender identities often are today, these mahu were revered in their social roles as sacred educators of ancient traditions.
- In ancient Incan culture, the Incas worshipped a “dual gendered god” known as chuqui chinchay, who could only be attended and honored by third gender shamans or servants who wore androgynous clothing as “a visible sign of a third space that negotiated between the masculine and the feminine, the present and the past, the living and the dead.”
- Among the Sakalavas of Madagascar, there is a third gender group reserved especially for little boys thought to have a feminine appearance and personality. These boys, rather than labeled as “gay men” after maturing and experiencing the upbringing of a male, are instead raised by their parents as girls from a young age (Source: Bader, 2014; Third Genders: New Concept? Or Old? ).
In other societies, membership in any of the gender categories is open to people regardless of their sex. In some cultures and subcultures, gender has traditionally been viewed as fluid, or existing along a spectrum. A continuum is multidimensional, allowing third gender, gender fluidity or genderless options, as well as many other possibilities and combinations; it is thus a reflection of the diversity of human genders.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
While we can dismiss much of what Freud theorized regarding many aspects of development (if not most), a consideration of his dated views is still appropriate. One thing that is not commonly mentioned about Freud is that he was one of the first theorists to really focus in on the fact that the two sexes may actually develop differently, meaning he was one of the first to focus on gender differences. However, he did assume that the male experience was the “norm” of development, which is evident in his theory and concepts. However, to his credit, he recognized that biology did not necessarily equal gender. As you have probably learned in many other courses, his theory comes under heavy criticism and is riddled with biases. However, there are some concepts that seem to have endured, including the concept of internal conflicts and how the unconscious motivates us, to some degree.
Despite a few enduring concepts, there are other pieces of his theory that are, as I mentioned, heavily criticized. For example, his theory assumes that healthy and mature development results in heterosexuality with very strict conformity to one’s prescribed gender. In fact, his theory would suggest that someone that is not heterosexual experienced a fixation in one of his stages (described below) and thus did not resolve a primary conflict. As such, one would need to attempt to be “cured” of homosexuality. He also suggested that, although biology does not predict gender development, gender development is always related to sexuality.
Freud’s theory is well known for introducing the concepts of the id, ego, and superego and for centering much of his theory around the libido (or sex drive). The id can be thought of as our primal instincts – sex and aggression, the ego can be thought of as our logical thinking brain area – rational, practical thinking, and the superego can be thought of as our moral compass – the mediator between the id and ego. Ultimately, Freud indicated that the libido (sex drive, part of the id ) was the driving factor that moved individuals through development, and the location of this libido moved throughout development. In the beginning, the libido is centered in the oral area, known as the Oral Stage. An individual gets pleasure from feeding, swallowing, sucking, etc. If a child develops appropriately in this stage, they learn that they are loved by their mother, and their ego begins to develop, to deal with frustration from going from being breastfed to eating solid foods. If they do not resolve this stage appropriately, they may later have issues with over eating, smoking, etc. In each stage, there is a goal to resolve a conflict successfully. If the individual resolves the conflict, the child develops adaptively. According to Freud, if the individual does not resolve the conflict successfully, there are negative consequences to development. In early childhood we turn our focus to the Phallic stage, as this is the area in which the Oedipus complex emerges and most directly relates to gender development from Freud’s theory.
Oedipus Complex
Ultimately, until the Phallic stage, Freud viewed development to be the same for both boys and girls. The penis, or absence of, is the differentiating factor here, as the libido moves to the penis or clitoris in the Phallic stage. He viewed this stage as the time in which ‘boys become men’.
So why did Freud describe the conflict in the Phallic stage as the Oedipus complex? Well, let’s take a very brief look at Oedipus himself. Oedipus was a man that killed his father and married his mother in Greek mythology. As this isn’t a lesson in Greek mythology, we will keep the story extremely brief. Oedipus had an early life that separated him from his true mother and father. He later ended up killing his father in battle (not knowing it was his father). Events occurred and ultimately, he married. However, he nor his wife knew that his new bride was actually his mother. When this was learned, his mother/wife hung herself and Oedipus poked both of his eyes out, blinding him (McLeod, 2008).
So, what does this have to do with Freud’s stages and theory? Great question! In the Phallic stage, the penis (or absence thereof) is the focus of the libido, and thus, will be the focus of the conflict that must be resolved in that stage. Ultimately, in this stage, boys begin to develop sexual desires for their mother and become jealous of their father. This desire then leads to a strong fear that his father will ultimately castrate him due to his attraction, which is known as castration anxiety . As always, there is a conflict in Freud’s stage, and here it is. To help manage this conflict, the superego develops and the boy transfers his desire for his mother onto other women, in general. Thus, the stage is resolved (McLeod, 2008; Sammons, n.d.).
Electra Complex
So how does this work for girls if they do not have a penis to fear castration of? Sometimes referred to as the Electra Complex, Freud theorized that girls were upset and distressed that they had no penis (referred to as penis envy) and resented their mother for this. He theorized that girls begin desiring their father at this time and become jealous of their mother. Similar to boys, the development of the superego allows the girl to resolve this conflict. Ultimately, she begins to accept that she cannot gain a penis, nor have her father, and she transfers this desire onto other men and later transfers her desire for a penis to a desire for a baby (and maybe even more so, a baby boy; Sammons, n.d.).
Overall, for both genders, identification is the ultimate resolution of the internal conflict in the Phallic stage. This results in the individual identifying with the same-sex parent, and adopting that parent’s behaviors, roles, etc. (McLeod, 2008).
Following the Phallic stage is the Latency stage, in which Freud indicated that no real psychosexual development is occurring, rather impulses are repressed. However, in the Genital stage, Freud theorized that this is a time in which adolescents experiment sexually, and begin to settle into romantic relationships. Freud theorized that healthy development leads to sexual drive being released through heterosexual intercourse; however, fixations or incomplete resolutions of conflict in this stage may lead to sexual atypicalities (e.g., preference for oral sex rather than intercourse, homosexual relations, etc.; McLeod, 2008). Again, you can see, very clearly, that there is an underlying assumption that healthy development equals heterosexuality, which is a major criticism of Freud’s theory (Sammons, n.d.).
(This section licensed CC BY-NC-SA; The Psychology of Gende r (McRaney et al.)
Transgender Identities
In Western cultures, those who identify with the gender that was assigned to them at birth based on their biological sex (for example, they are assigned male at birth and continue to identify as a boy) are called cisgender . Individuals who identify with a gender that is different from the one they were assigned based on their biological sex (as just one example, they are assigned male at birth but feel inwardly that they are female, or a gender other than a boy) are transgender . Transgender is an umbrella term that refers to the state of one's gender identity not matching one's assigned sex (their identification by others as male, female, or intersex, based on genetic and biological characteristics). Transgender is independent of sexual orientation; transgender people may identify as heterosexual, lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, pansexual, or asexual (to name a few examples), just like cisgender people do. In January of 2017 the Williams Institute released a report titled "Age of Individuals Who Identify as Transgender in the United States" that uses national data to determine the proportion of the population in the United States that identifies as transgender at age 13 and beyond and to develop a greater understanding of this population. It was found that .7% of those 13-24 identified as transgender. This estimate may be conservative as many transgender individuals are afraid to disclose their authentic identity.
Preschool-aged children become increasingly interested in finding out the differences in gender and cultural "norms" of gender performance both physically and in terms of what activities are currently acceptable within their culture. While 2 year olds can identify some differences and similarities, preschoolers become more interested in what it means to take on a gender identity. Gender roles or the rights and expectations that are associated with being a particular gender (or not) are learned throughout childhood and into adulthood. Gender socialization (in many cultures and certainly in the United States) is a process that continues throughout life but children, teens, and adults can refine and modify their sense of self based on many more factors than just gender.
Learning theorists suggest that gender role socialization is a result of the ways in which parents/caregivers, teachers, friends, schools, religious/spiritual institutions, media, and others send messages about what is acceptable or desirable behavior based on gender. This socialization begins early-in fact, it may even begin the moment a parent/caregiver learns that a child is on the way. Knowing the sex of the child can conjure up images of the child’s behavior, appearance, and potential on the part of a parent/caregiver. And this stereotyping continues to guide perception through life. Consider parents/caregivers of newborns, shown a 7 pound, 20-inch baby, wrapped in blue (a color designating males) describe the child as tough, strong, and angry when crying. Shown the exact same infant in pink (a color used in the United States for baby girls), they describe the baby as pretty, delicate, and frustrated when crying (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987). Female-labeled infants are held more, talked to more frequently, and given direct eye contact, while a male-labeled infant's play is often mediated through a toy or activity.
Let's take a look at some cultural binary examples: Sons are given tasks that take them outside the house and that have to be performed only on occasion while girls are more likely to be given chores inside the home such as cleaning or cooking that is performed daily. Sons are encouraged to think for themselves when they encounter problems and daughters are more likely to be given assistance even when they are working on an answer. This impatience is reflected in teachers waiting less time when asking a female student for an answer than when asking for a reply from a male student (Sadker and Sadker, 1994). Girls are given the message from teachers that they must try harder and endure in order to succeed while boys' successes are attributed to their intelligence. Of course, the stereotypes of advisors can also influence which kinds of courses or vocational choices kids are encouraged to make.
Peers also play a role with respect to gender, signaling expectations and value judgments, just as caregivers do. Friends discuss what is acceptable for boys and girls and popularity may be based on modeling or acting in ways that are considered "ideal behavior" or "looks" for the different sexes. This is called " gender performance ." Girls tend to be socialized to tell one another secrets to validate others as best friends while boys are often encouraged to compete for position by emphasizing their knowledge, strength, or accomplishments. This focus on accomplishments can even give rise to exaggerating accomplishments in boys, but girls are discouraged from showing off and may learn to minimize their accomplishments as a result.
Gender messages abound in our environment. For example, while the tides seem to be changing around marketing toys to "girls" or "boys" in certain ways, r esearch by the Institution for Engineering and Technology (IET) found that toys with a science, technology, engineering and math focus were three times as likely to be targeted at boys than girls. And despite high-profile recent campaigns that have had some success, toys for girls are still overwhelmingly pink. While the gendering of toys is certainly problematic, i t’s not just the toys which are the issue, but the whole idea that some things are just for "boys or girls". If children learn that early, it’s hardly surprising that they go on to apply this logic to their career choices, too.
How much does gender matter? In the United States, gender differences are found in school experiences, in social interactions and in media messages. The stereotypes that boys should be strong, forceful, active, dominant, and rational and that girls should be pretty, subordinate, emotional, and nurturing are portrayed in children’s toys, books, commercials, video games, movies, television shows and music. In adulthood, these differences are reflected in higher rates of violent death for men in young adulthood and income gaps between men and women where women working full-time earn about 74 percent the income of men.
But does this mean that each of us receives and interprets these messages in the same way? It certainly depends on many variables and in Lifespan Psychology, the answer is often, "it depends." In addition to being recipients of these cultural expectations, we are, after all, individuals who also modify these roles (Kimmel, 2008).