1.2: Methods of Knowing

Learning Objectives

1. Describe the methods of acquiring knowledge
2. Understand the benefits and problems with each.

Take a minute to ponder some of what you know and how you acquired that knowledge. Perhaps you know that you should make your bed in the morning because your mother or father told you this is what you should do, perhaps you know that swans are white because all of the swans you have seen are white, or perhaps you know that your friend is lying to you because she is acting strange and won’t look you in the eye. But should we trust knowledge from these sources? The methods of acquiring knowledge can be broken down into the following categories each with its own strengths and weaknesses. These are listed in a general order of how trustworthy the knowledge gained may be, but that does not mean that one method is inherently better than another in all circumstances. The method that you rely on may change based on the purpose of the knowledge.

Intuition

The first method of knowing that we will discuss is intuition. When we use our intuition, we are relying on our guts, our emotions, and/or our instincts to guide us. Rather than examining facts or using rational thought, intuition involves believing what feels true.

The problem with relying on intuition is that our intuitions can be wrong because they are driven by cognitive and motivational biases rather than logical reasoning or scientific evidence. While the strange behavior of your friend may lead you to think s/he is lying to you it may just be that s/he is holding in a bit of gas or is preoccupied with some other issue that is irrelevant to you.

The strength of this approach is that sometimes decisions based on intuition are actually superior to those based on analysis (people interested in this idea should read Malcolm Gladwell’s (2005) book Blink). Additionally, weighing alternatives and thinking of all the different possibilities may be paralyzing for some people, but it can definitely be a hassle for everyone!

Authority

Perhaps one of the most common methods of acquiring knowledge is through authority. This method involves accepting new ideas because some authority figure states that they are true. These authorities include parents, the media, doctors, religious authorities, the government, and even professors.

While in an ideal world we should be able to trust authority figures, history has taught us otherwise and many instances of atrocities against humanity are a consequence of people unquestioningly following authority (e.g., Salem Witch Trials, Nazi War Crimes). On a more benign level, while your parents may have told you that you should make your bed in the morning, making your bed provides the warm damp environment in which mites thrive. Keeping the sheets open provides a less hospitable environment for mites. These examples illustrate that the problem with using authority to obtain knowledge is that they may be wrong, they may just be using their intuition to arrive at their conclusions, and they may have their own reasons to mislead you.

Nevertheless, much of the information we acquire is through authority because we don’t have time to question and independently research every piece of knowledge we learn through authority. But we can learn to evaluate the credentials of authority figures, to evaluate the methods they used to arrive at their conclusions, and evaluate whether they have any reasons to mislead us.

Rationalism

Rationalism involves using logic and reasoning to acquire new knowledge. If you''ve taken a philosophy or critical thinking class, then yo'uve encountered rationalism. Using this method premises are stated and logical rules are followed to arrive at sound conclusions. For instance, if I am given the premise that all swans are white and the premise that this is a swan then I can come to the rational conclusion that this swan is white without actually seeing the swan.

The problem with this method is that if the premises are wrong or there is an error in logic then the conclusion will not be valid. For instance, the premise that all swans are white is incorrect; there are black swans in Australia. Also, unless formally trained in the rules of logic it is easy to make an error.

Despite this problem, if the premises are correct and logical rules are followed appropriately then this is sound means of acquiring knowledge. [Notice that this statement is an If/Then statement, a common logical rule used in rationalism!]

Empiricism

Empiricism involves acquiring knowledge through observation and experience. Another way to put it is that empiricism is about collecting data, but in a non-systemic way; you are going through your life observing information and experiencing interactions with the world, but you are not systematically collecting data.

Once again many of you may have believed that all swans are white because you have only ever seen white swans. The data that you have collected through your observations is that all swans are white. These examples illustrate the problems with relying on empiricism alone to derive knowledge. We are limited in what we can experience and observe. Moreover, our prior experiences can alter the way we perceive events.

The strength of this approach is that you are actually observing reality. Knowledge through empiricism is not based on a critical analysis or your gut feeling, but on information collected from the environment.

The Scientific Method

Empiricism is at the heart of the scientific method because science relies on observations. But not just any observations, science relies on structured observations which is known as systematic empiricism. The scientific method is a process of systematically collecting and evaluating evidence to test ideas and answer questions. While scientists may use intuition, authority, rationalism, and empiricism to generate new ideas they don’t stop there. Scientists go a step further by using systematic empiricism to make careful observations under various controlled conditions in order to test their ideas and they use rationalism to arrive at valid conclusions.

Like all methods of acquiring knowledge it also has its drawbacks. One major problem is that it is not always feasible to use the scientific method; this method can require considerable time and resources. Another problem with the scientific method is that it cannot be used to answer all questions; the scientific method can only be used to address empirical questions (questions that can be answered by collecting data).

The scientific method is believed to be the most likely of all of the methods to produce verifiable knowledge. This book and your research methods course are designed to provide you with an in-depth examination of how psychologists use the scientific method to advance our understanding of human behavior and the mind.

Indigenous Ways of Knowing

Traditional ways of of learning about the world are practiced by all indigenous cultures. Many researchers from WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic; FMI on WEIRD in Psychology at SimplyPutPsych.co.uk) cultures have never learned about traditional research practices, but they exist, are utilized, and indigenous researchers are innovating new practices. In Simonds and Christopher's (2013) discussion of merging the scientific method with Indigenous ways of knowing, there are several important points from their discussion. First, Indigenous knowledge is both specific to individual cultures, but also to individual locations. The knowledge itself is based on and includes the local environment. Another important consideration is that the community is probably still dealing with the effects of colonization. If researchers focus only on a few current variables, then they are missing critical context for behavior.

Finally, researchers should be have high levels of integrity to collect data and use of the knowledge gained in ethical ways (Simonds & Christopher, 2013). Many Indigenous communities have had their cultural and physical bodies stolen or desecrated by previous researchers and colonizers. Simonds and Christopher (2013, 2189) share that "In Native American communities, knowledge is sacred and access to it must be earned"; current and future researchers must respect the community. Building trust is a critical, but long, process. Researchers should consider community-based participatory research (CBPR) when working with Indigenous communities (Simonds & Christopher, 2013). In one such partnership, it became clear that how data is interpreted differed between the researcher and the Indigenous co-researchers (Simonds and Christopher, 2013). The qualitative researcher was trying to find themes by pulling out quotations, but that method did not make sense to the co-researchers, who suggested that such analysis separated the information from the context of the participants' stories and lacked information about the tribal role of the speaker. A team made up of the academic researcher and the Indigenous co-researcher eventually found a symbol (Crow tipi, a unique type of design with four base poles that is a symbol for home for that culture) that the worked for all. The team was able to accomplish this through respect, a willingness for both sides to learn and work together, and trust through the CBPR process.

While the next subsection will discuss science more, and the scientific method is the main focus of this entire textbook, it's important to consider what the best method might be to answer your research question. When you are working for indigenous communities, the best research methods may not be the scientific method alone.

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References

Gladwell, M. E. (2005). Blink: The power of thinking without thinking. (9th ed.). New York: Little, Brown & Co. ↵

Simonds, V. W. & Christopher, S. (2013). Adapting western research methods to Indigenous ways of knowing. American Journal of Public Health, 103(12), 2185-2192.