Glossary
- Page ID
- 240683
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\dsum}{\displaystyle\sum\limits} \)
\( \newcommand{\dint}{\displaystyle\int\limits} \)
\( \newcommand{\dlim}{\displaystyle\lim\limits} \)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)
\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)
\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)| Words (or words that have the same definition) | The definition is case sensitive | (Optional) Image to display with the definition [Not displayed in Glossary, only in pop-up on pages] | (Optional) Caption for Image | (Optional) External or Internal Link | (Optional) Source for Definition |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Eg. "Genetic, Hereditary, DNA ...") | (Eg. "Relating to genes or heredity") |  |
The infamous double helix | https://bio.libretexts.org/ | CC-BY-SA; Delmar Larsen |
|
Word(s) |
Definition |
Image | Caption | Link | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Epistemology | The branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called "theory of knowledge", it explores different types of knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology | CC-BY-SA 4.0 Wikipedia | ||
| Intuition | A way of gaining knowledge through your unconscious beliefs. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Authority | A way of gaining knowledge that relies on leaders and people in charge. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Rationalism | A way of gaining knowledge through logical rules like "if/then" statements to reach a conclusion. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Empiricism | A way of gaining knowledge by collecting data. This differs from the scientific method in that the data collection may not be systematic or to test a hypothesis. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Scientific Method | A way of gaining knowledge based on structured data collection that tests hypotheses or theories. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Basic Research | A type of study conducted primarily for the sake of achieving a more detailed and accurate understanding of human behavior, without necessarily trying to address any particular practical problem. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Applied Research | A type of study conducted primarily to solve a real-life problem. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Literature Review | Finding and reading previous research and summaries about a specific topic. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Empirical Research Reports | A type of research literature that reports on studies in which the authors analyzed data | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Primary Source | An original document; in research, an article in which the authors collected and analyzed their own data | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Review Articles, review article | A type of research literature that summarizes others' previous research | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Secondary Sources, secondary source | A variety of documents that summarize others' research or thoughts | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Peer Review | In research publishing, a system of evaluation in which experts in the field volunteer to review research manuscript drafts to determine if the manuscript should be published, revised, or rejected. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Theory | A coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Research Hypothesis, research hypotheses | A specific prediction about how variables interact with each other that can be tested | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Complete Research Hypothesis | A prediction about how a DV will be affected by each level of the IV. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Null Hypothesis, null hypotheses | Stating that nothing is happening statistically between variables. This can be a statement that the means of an outcome variable are similar between groups, or that there is no linear relationship between two variables, or that there is no pattern of relationship between categories. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Variable, variables | A quantity or quality that varies across people or situations | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Quantitative variable, quantitative variables | Type of variable that is measured with some sort of scale that uses numbers that measure something. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Categorical variable, categorical variables | Type of variable that has different values to represent different qualities or kinds This is the same as qualitative variables. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Qualitative variable, qualitative variables, nominal level | Type of variable that has different values to represent different categories or kinds This is the same as the nominal scale of measurement. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Operational Definition, operational definitions | A description of the variable in terms of precisely how it is to be measured. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Population | The largest group that the researcher is interested in drawing conclusions about. Ideally, this is also the largest group that the sample can adequately represent. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton and CC-BY-NC-SA Michelle Oja | |||
| Independent Variable, IV | The variable that the experimenter manipulates, and believes is the cause of changes in the outcome variable. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Dependent Variable, DV | The measured variable that the experimenter think is the effect (the thing that the IV changes). This is the outcome variable, the thing that we're trying to improve. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Predictor variable, predictor variables | The variable that the experimenter believes is the cause of changes in the outcome variable, but which the experimenter did not manipulate. This is often called an independent variable, but this is imprecise as there is no manipulation by the experimenter. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Extraneous variable, extraneous variables | Any variable other than the independent variable(s) and the dependent variable(s) | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Confound, confounds, confounding variable | A variable that systematically varies along with the independent variable. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Qualitative Research | Research that typically involves formulating broad research questions, collecting large amounts of data from a small number of participants, and summarizing the data using nonstatistical techniques. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Laboratory Study | Type of research done in a controlled environment, like a laboratory, classroom, or other situation in which the experimenter has control. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Field Study | Type of research done in the real world, in the a natural environment. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Internal Validity | In terms of an experiment (not a survey), this is the degree to which we can confidently infer a causal relationship between variables. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| External Validity | The degree to which the findings can be generalized to other circumstances or settings. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Mode | The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Median | The midpoint, or exact middle, of a distribution of scores. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Mean | The mathematical average of a distribution of scores, found by summing all of the scores and then dividing by the total number of scores. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Range | A measure of dispersion that measures the distance between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Standard Deviation | A measure of dispersion that measures the average distance of scores from the mean. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Correlation Coefficient, correlation | A statisticcal analysis that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between two quantitative variables. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Inferential Statistics | Analysis used to make generalizations from the sample data to the population of interest. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Statistically Significant, statistical significance | When statistical analyses show that an effect is probably not due to random chance; therefore the results likely represent a real effect in the population. Traditionally, this is when the probability that the null hypothesis is true is less than 5% (p<.05). | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton and CC-BY-NC-SA Michelle Oja | |||
| Type I Error | Based on your sample's results, you reject a true null hypothesis; you say that something is happening when there probably isn't anything happening in the population. | https://stats.libretexts.org/Courses...icance_Testing | CC-BY Michelle Oja | ||
| Type II Error | Based on your sample's results, you retain a false null hypothesis; you say that nothing is happening when something is probably happening in the population. | https://stats.libretexts.org/Courses...icance_Testing | CC-BY Michelle Oja | ||
| Copy Manuscript | A type of report that will be submitted to a professional journal for publication. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Sample, samples | People who participate in a study; the smaller group that the data is gathered from. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Random Sample, random sampling | |||||
| Probability Sampling | A method to develop a sample in which the researcher can specify the probability that each member of the population will be selected for the sample. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Non-Probability Sampling | A method to develop a sample in which the researcher cannot specify the probability that each member of the population will be selected for the sample. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Sampling Frame | A list of all the members of the population used to recruit a sample from. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Random Sample, random sampling, simple random sampling | Choosing participants in such a way that each individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Random Selection | See "Random Sample" | ||||
| Stratified Random Sampling | Identifying potential participants by dividing the population into different subgroups or “strata” and then a random sample is taken from each “stratum | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Convenience Sampling, convenience sample | Collecting data on individuals who are easy for the researcher to access and incentivize to participate in the study. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Snowball Sampling | Choosing additional participants through referral from existing research participants. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Self-Selection Sampling | Individuals choose to take part in the research on their own accord, without being approached by the researcher directly, | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Sampling Bias | When the results of a study are less likely to be accurate because a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the entire population. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Non-Response Bias | The possibility that survey non-responders differ from survey responders in systematic ways, which could lead to inaccurate results. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Assent |
Assent means a child's affirmative agreement to participate in research. Mere failure to object should not, absent affirmative agreement, be construed as assent. |
https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-4...pter-A/part-46 | Part 46 of Title 45 of the Code of Federal Regulations | ||
| Informed Consent | The process of obtaining and documenting participants’ agreement to be in a study, having explained to them of everything that might reasonably be expected to affect their decision. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Coercion, coerce | Compelling someone to act against their best interests in such a way that they feel like they have little choice but to comply. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Confederate | In research studies, a person who plays the role of a participant but is really part of the research team or an actor; these people may interact in scripted ways with real participants. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Debrief, debriefing | The process of informing research participants after their participation in a study of the purpose of the study. During this process, researchers should reveal any deception, as well as minimize any harm that might have occurred. |
CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Manipulation Check | A measure of a manipulated independent variable, isually done at the end of the procedure, to confirm that the independent variable was successfully manipulated. |
CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Psychometrics | Measurement of psychological variables and constructs. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Construct | A psychological variable that cannot be observed directly. These include personality traits, emotional states, attitudes, and abilities. |
CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Conceptual definition | A description of the behaviors and internal processes that make up a construct. This contrasts with an operational definition. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Self-report measure, self-report | When participants provide information on their own thoughts, feelings, and actions. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Behavioral Measure | When some aspect of a participant’s behavior is observed and recorded. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Physiological Measure | A measure that involves recording a biological variable, such as heart rate, blood pressure, galvanic skin response, or brain activity. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Nominal Level | One level of measurement; see Qualitative Variable | ||||
| Ordinal Level | Level of measurement in which levels have an order; a type of variable that can be put in numerical order. The variables are in ranks (first, second, third, etc.). | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Interval Level | Level of measurement that involves assigning scores using numerical scales in which intervals have the same interpretation throughout. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Ratio Level | Level of measurement involves assigning scores in such a way that there is a true zero point that represents the complete absence of the quantity. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Statistical Validity | Accurate interpretation of results of the most appropriate statistical analysis of the data. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Reliability | Consistency of measurement. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Test-Retest Reliability | A measure of consistency in which an assessment is taken twice by the same participants; consistency is found when the results do not change (when they are not expected to change). | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Internal Consistency, internal reliability | The extent to which the items on a multiple-item survey are consistent with each other. This is usually measured by Cronbach's Alpha. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Split-Half Correlation | A measure of reliability that assesses the relationship between scores based on one half of the items on a multiple-item survey and scores based on the other half of the items. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Interrater Reliability |
The extent to which different observers are consistent in their judgments. Common Synonyms include:
|
CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Validity | The accuracy in which a measure assesses the target construct; you measure the variable that you intend to measure. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Face Validity | The extent to which a survey appears “on its face” to measure the construct of interest. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Convergent Validity | The extent to which scores on a survey are related to surveys of constructs that would be expect to be related to show that a survey is accurate. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Content Validity | To measure the accuracy of a survey, the extent to which a measure assess all target areas of the construct of interest. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Criterion Validity | To measure the accuracy of a survey, the extent to which scores on a measure are related to variables (criteria) that would be expect to be related. This works best when the criteria are not other surveys. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Discriminant Validity | The extent to which scores on a survey are not related to surveys of constructs that would be expect to not be related to show that a survey is accurate. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Respondent | A term often used to refer to a participant in survey research. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Open-Ended | A question that allows participants to respond in whatever way they want. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Closed-Ended, close-ended | A question and provides a set of response options for participants to choose from. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Rating Scale | An ordered set of response options to a closed-ended question. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Likert Scale | An ordered set of response options assessing participants' level of agreement to statements. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Focus Group | A small group of people who participate together in a facilitated conversation focused on a particular topic or issue. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Unobtrusive Research | Methods of collecting data that don’t interfere with the participants under study. | CC-NC-SA | |||
| Hawthorne Effect | A situation that occurs when research participants, either intentionally or unintentionally, alter their behaviors because they know they are being studied. | CC-NC-SA | |||
| Naturalistic Observation | Method of data collection that involves observing people’s behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Structured Observation | Method of data collection that involves observing people’s behavior in an environment that the researcher has structured in some one, often adding a specific set of interventions. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Disguised Observation | Method of data collection in which observations are made as unobtrusively as possible so that participants are not aware that they are being studied. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Undisguised Observation | Method of data collection in which participants are made aware of the researcher presence and monitoring of their behavio. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Reactivity | When a measure changes participants’ behavior. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Participant Observation | Method of data collection in which researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Coding | In terms of data collection, target behaviors are specified ahead of time and observers watch for and record those specific behaviors. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Physical Trace, physical traces | remnants of past behavior | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observ...ce,-%5Bedit%5D | CC-BY-SA by Wikipedia | ||
| Archival Data | Existing data that were collected or created for some other purpose. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Content Analysis | A family of systematic approaches to identifying patterns in complex data, such as written or verbal responses. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Abstract | A short summary (approximately 200 words) of a research article. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Title Page, cover page | The first page of an APA-style manuscript, containing the title, author names, and affiliations. Some versions of APA Style include other components, as well, such as an author note. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Method Section | The part of an APA Style empirical research report in which the method is described in detail. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Result Section | The part of an APA Style empirical research report in which the outcome of the analyses are described in detail. |
CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Discussion Section | The final major section in the main body of an APA Style empirical research report, sometimes called a Conclusion. It typically includes a summary of the research question and findings, a discussion of implications of the study, limitations of the study, and suggestions for future research. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Appendix, appendices | An optional section at the end of an APA Style report used to present important material, such as tables, figures, full surveys, or pictures or screen shots. |
CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| p-value | A number that tells us the estimated probability that the null hypothesis is true. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Descriptive Statistics | A set of techniques for summarizing and displaying quantitative data. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Distribution | The way the scores on a variable are distributed across the levels of that variable. This is often shown in a frequency chart. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Histogram | A graph for displaying the distribution of a quantitative variable. The x-axis represents the values of the variable, and the y-axis represents the frequency of each score. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Frequency Polygon, frequency line graph | A graph that displays the distribution of a quantitative variable in a line. The x-axis represents the values of the variable, and the y-axis represents the frequency of each score. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Skew, skewed distribution | A distribution in which many scores are bunched up to one side, and there are only a few scores on the other side. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Positive skew | The scores are bunched to the left, and the thin tail is pointing to the right. | Positive skew is shown on the right panel. | Rodolfo Hermans (Godot), CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |
| Negative skew | The scores are bunched to the right, and the thin tail is pointing to the left. | Negative skew is shown on the left panel. | Rodolfo Hermans (Godot), CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |
| Outlier | An extreme score, a score that seems much higher or much lower than most of the other scores (There is a technical way to calculate whether a score is an outlier or not, but you don't need to know it.) | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Range | The difference between the highest score and the lowest score in a distribution of quantitative data. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Statistical analysis, statistical analyses | Procedures to organize and interpret numerical information | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Statistic | The results of statistical analyses | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Parameter | Statistic describing characteristics of the population (usually mean and standard deviation of the population) | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Sampling Error | Random variation in a statistic from sample to sample. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Null Hypothesis Significance Testing | A formal approach that uses probability to decide between two interpretations (null hypothesis compared to a research hypothesis) of a statistical relationship in a sample. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Practical Significance | The importance of a research result in the real-world; research results can be statistically significant without having real-world effects. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Post-Hoc Comparison, post-hoc comparisons | Statistical comparison of pairs of group means following a statistically significant ANOVA result. There are several options to choose from that vary by mathematical complexity and preference for risking Type I Errors or Type II Errors. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Effect Size | Any number representing the strength of a statistical relationship, but especially a computation to standardize the effect. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Factor Analysis | A complex statistical technique that organizes several variables into clusters where there are strong correlations among the variables within a cluster but weak correlations among the variables between clusters. Each cluster is interpreted as representing a different underlying variable or factor. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Statistical Control | In complex correlational research, accounting for third variables by measuring them and including them in the analysis. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Partial Correlation | A statistical technique in which the linear relationship between two quantitative variables is tested while statistically controlling for one or more potential additional variables. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Regression, simple regression | An advanced statistical technique that allows researchers to estimate one variable (outcome) given another variable (predictor). | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Multiple Regression | A statistical technique that describes the relationship between two or more predictor variables and a single outcome variable in terms of an equation that shows the separate contribution of each predictor variable to the outcome variable. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Reflexivity | In the context of social science research, the process of reflecting on one’s own perspective and positionality and how this perspective and positionality shape “research design, data collection, analysis, and knowledge production” (Hsiung, 2008) | CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Mikaila Mariel Lemonik Arthu | |||
| Natural Groups Design | Research study that compares groups that were not randomly assigned into the IV conditions. This type of design is sometimes called a posttest-only nonequivalent group design. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Third-Variable Problem | The problem of knowing whether two variables, X and Y, are statistically related because one causes the other or because some third variable, Z, causes both X and Y. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| True Experiment, experiment | Type of study designed specifically to answer the question of whether there is a causal relationship between variables. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Initial Equivalence, initially equivalent | A fundamental feature of experimental studies to show cause-and-effect by creating groups, or conditions, that start the study with similar characteristics. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Ongoing Equivalence | A fundamental feature of experimental studies to show cause-and-effect by attempting to have the only variable that differs between groups, or conditions, throughout the study is the independent variable. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Conditions | Levels of the independent variable in an experiment; the IV groups. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Random Assignment, randomly assign | The placement of participants to different IV conditions based on a probabilistic method to attain a random distribution of characteristics across the different IV conditions. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Replication | The process of conducting an empirical study again to see if the same results are observed. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Control Group, control condition | In an experiment with random assignment, this group does not receive any treatment to use as a comparison for the intervention condition. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Randomized Clinical Trial | An experiment designed to test the effectiveness of a psychological or medical treatment that utilizes random assignment into a treatment conditions. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Placebo | A simulated or fake treatment that lacks any active ingredient or element that should make it effective. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Placebo Effect | The response of participants to a simulated or fake treatment in relation to participants who received no treatment nor any fake treatment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placeb...on,-%5Bedit%5D | CC-BY-SA by Wikipedia | ||
| Wait-List Control Group | In experiments, the condition in which participants are put on a waitlist to receive the treatment after the study is completed. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Between Groups Design | An experiment in which each participant is randomly assigned into only one IV condition. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Matched Groups Design | An experiment in which each participant is paired with another participant with similar score on a variable that is not the IV nor the DV. The participants are then randomly assigned into only one of the two IV conditions. This can be modified to trios, quads, etc., if there are three, four, or more IV conditions. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Repeated Measures Design | An experiment in which each participant is tested on the DV in all conditions of the IV, with the order of the IV conditions randomized for each participant. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Order Effect, order effects | A threat to internal validity (showing cause-and-effect) when participants’ responses in the conditions of a repeated measures design are affected by the order of conditions to which they were expose.d | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Counterbalancing | Systematically varying the order of conditions across participants when participants are in all conditions. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design | A quasi-experimental design in which the dependent variable is measured once before the treatment is implemented and once after it is implemented for one group. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Pretest | Measurement of an outcome variable (DV) before implementation of a treatment or event. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Posttest | Measurement of an outcome variable (DV) after implementation of a treatment or event. This term is usually only used when paired with a pretest. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Posttest-Only Nonequivalent Group Desing | See "Natural Groups Design" | ||||
| Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalence Group Design | A quasi-experimental design in which a treatment group is given a pretest, receives a treatment, and then is given a posttest, while at the same time there is a nonequivalent control group that is given a pretest, does not receive the treatment, and then is given a posttest. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Interrupted Time-Series Design with Nonequivalent Groups | A type of quasi-experimental design in which a set of measurements are taken at intervals over a period of time both before and after an intervention of interest in two or more nonequivalent groups. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Interrupted Time-Series Design | A type of quasi-experimental design that is a variant of the One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design in which a set of measurements taken at intervals over a period of time before and after a treatment is implemented. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Pretest-Posttest Design with Switching Replication Design | A quasi-experimental design in which nonequivalent groups are administered a pretest of the dependent variable, then one group receives a treatment while a nonequivalent control group does not receive a treatment, the dependent variable is assessed again, and then the treatment is added to the control group, and finally the dependent variable is assessed one last time. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Switching Replication with Treatment Removal design, | A quasi-experimental design in which nonequivalent groups are administered a pretest of the dependent variable, then one group receives a treatment while a nonequivalent control group does not receive a treatment, the dependent variable is assessed again. The next stage is to remove the treatment from the first group and add the treatment to the control group. Finally, the dependent variable is assessed one last time. |
CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Observer Bias | The tendency of observers to not see what is there, but instead to see what they expect or want to see. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer_bias | CC-BY-SA by Wikipedia | ||
| Experimenter Expectancy Effects | The impact that the researcher's thoughts on the results of the study (unconsciously) affects the researcher's behavior, which then influences the results in the expected direction. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Factorial Design | A type of research design with more than one IV in which each level of one independent variable is combined with each level of the others to produce all possible combinations. Each combination, then, becomes a condition in the experiment. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Main Effect, main effects | In a factorial design, the effect of one independent variable averaged across levels of all other independent variables. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Interaction, interaction effect | How the levels of two or more IVs jointly affect a DV; when one IV interacts with the other IV to affect the DV. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Small-N Design, small-n | A type of quantitative research that involves recording specific behavior(s) of a small number of participants in alternating conditions of baseline to treatment and back. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Single-Subject Design, single-subject research | See "Small-N Design" | ||||
| Applied Behavioral Analysis | During therapy or training, the use of small-N designs to produce socially valid effects. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Social Validity | The extent to which a study focuses on an intervention that has a substantial effect on an important behavior and can be implemented reliably in the real-world contexts in which that behavior occurs. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Baseline | A condition in which the dependent variable is measured in the absence of any treatment. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Nonexperimental Research, non-experimental research | Research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable and does not have initial equivalence between groups. This reduces internal validity so that the study cannot show cause-and-effect relationships. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Observational Research | Several different types studies, usually which are non-experimental, in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Longitudinal Design, longitudinal study | A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer_bias | CC-BY-SA by Wikipedia | ||
| Cross-Sectional Design, cross-section study |
A research design that involves measurement of the same variable for individuals who are at varying points of progress or development. |
CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Cohort Effect | The outcome of shared characteristics over time among individuals who are grouped by a shared temporal experience, such as year of birth, or common life experience, such as time of exposure to radiation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohort_effect | CC-BY-SA by Wikipedia | ||
| Cross-Sequential Design | A research design that combines both a longitudinal design and a cross-sectional design in which a researcher chooses a smaller time window than the desired longitudinal design to study multiple individuals of different starting ages (cross-sections). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-sequential_study | CC-BY-SA by Wikipedia | ||
| Case Study, case studies | A detailed description of an individual case. Cases are usually chosen because they are rare. Cases can be any single social unit, such as an individual person, a family, a specific town or city, or a specific company. | CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton | |||
| Psychobiological Measures | See "physiological measures". | ||||
| Structural Imaging | A variety of tools that take pictures of the physical features of the brain. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Functional Imaging | A variety of tools that measure how the brain works through measuring electrical or chemical activity in the brain. | CC-BY Michelle Oja | |||
| Neurotransmitter | Chemical messenger of the nervous system, especially between neurons. | https://openstax.org/books/psycholog...es/3-key-terms | CC-BY OpenStax |