6.1: Theorists

Early Cognitive Theories

There have been many who think about thinking. One theory of how children think was called tabula rasa, meaning "blank" or "clean" slate. The use of tabula rasa in relation to understanding cognitive development has been around since the Greeks with Aristotle (Aristotle, 2000). While he described the mind as a blank slate, there are debates around what he meant specifically (are we blank slates on which our stories are written, or are we filling our slates with knowledge to use). John Locke, a philosopher in the 17th century, expanded this idea in cognitive development. Locke argued that we were born with our minds a blank slate, which we fill with ideas as we use the 5 senses to learn more about the world (Locke, 1948).

Theories like tabula rasa are not as widely used anymore due to advances in research on genetics and neurosciences.

Constructivist Theories

While theories such as tabula rasa are not as common in approaching development, theories from Vygotsky and Piaget have continued to be used in understanding cognitive development. Both Vygotksy and Piaget are constructivist theorists. They believed humans play a role in construction of our own knowledge as active participants (Sweeney, 2009). While they both held belief that knowledge was constructed, they approached it in two different ways: Vygotsky from a social perspective and Piaget from a cognitive perspective.

Social Constructivist	Social constructivists believe that knowledge is socially constructed through interactions with others. They believe that reality is co-constructed with others. Learning is built based on interactions, relationships, and culture. (Amineh & Asl, 2015)
Cognitive Constructivist	Cognitive constructivists believe that knowledge is built through experiences and interactions. Knowledge is built on previously existing knowledge (see scheme theory below). Learning is an active process, with learners using information to make sense of their experiences and creating meaning of these experiences. (Hruby & Roegiers, 2012)

Fun Facts:

Vygotsky and Piaget were both born in the same year!

Vygotsky

"What a child can do with assistance today, she will be able to do by herself tomorrow" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 87).

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who we use as a theorist in education. Vygotsky was interested in the role that culture and social interaction had in shaping cognitive development. He was a social constructivist, meaning he believed that children constructed knowledge socially first, before internalizing the information (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development were heavily tied to social interactions.

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) represents one of Vygotsky's most significant contributions to developmental psychology and educational theory. Vygotsky (1978) formally defined the ZPD as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (p. 86).

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The ZPD comprises three distinct but interconnected zones:

1. What a child can do independently - This represents tasks a child can complete without assistance, indicating fully developed capabilities.

2. What a child can do with assistance - This is the actual ZPD where learning potential exists. With appropriate guidance from adults or more knowledgeable peers, the child can accomplish tasks beyond their independent abilities.

3. What a child cannot do even with assistance - These tasks lie beyond the child's current developmental capabilities, even with support.

Scaffolding

While Vygotsky never used the term "scaffolding," we often use this word to describe the supports within the ZPD. Wood et al. (1976) introduced this metaphor to describe the temporary, adjustable support provided within the ZPD. Effective scaffolding includes:

• Breaking complex tasks into manageable steps

• Modeling strategies and processes

• Providing verbal cues and prompts

• Gradually transferring responsibility to the learner

Piaget

Fun Fact

Piaget’s doctorate was in zoology from Neuchatel, Switzerland in 1918.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss theorist who we consider to be a developmental psychologist. While we now consider him a learning theorist because of his work on schema theory and Stages of Cognitive Development, Piaget considered himself a genetic epistemologist. Piaget’s primary concern was that of epistemology, the study of knowledge and how we come to know what we know (DeRose, 2005).

Piaget developed genetic epistemology, partially based on his interest in biology and zoology (Ramozzi-Chiarottino, 2021). Piaget described the work of genetic epsitomology as the study of biological and psychological origins (Sweeney, 2009). The work of epistemology we can think of as combining both “nature” and “nurture” as we often talk about in early childhood care and education. Piaget believed that the connection between biology and cognitive development begins very early in life (Sweeney, 2009). Because of this, Piaget discussed the connection of cognition and biology expresses itself through two functional invariants: organization and adaptation.

Definition: Invariant

Piaget used the word invariant to describe the cognitive process that remain constant throughout development, regardless of age or developmental stage. This provides the foundation for cognitive development while allowing for stage-specific variations in construction of knowledge. (Piaget, 1970)

Organization	Adaptation
The tendency to systematize and integrate cognitive structures into coherent systems. Children naturally organize their thoughts, perceptions, and experiences into increasingly complex mental frameworks (schemas). This organizing function remains constant even as the specific content and complexity of schemas change with development. (Flavell, 1963)	The process of adjusting to environmental demands through the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation. Throughout all developmental stages, humans continue to adapt to their environment by incorporating new information (assimilation) and modifying existing cognitive structures when necessary (accommodation). (Flavell, 1963)

Schema Theory

A schema is a mental representation or cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas function as categories of knowledge that help us understand and respond to situations based on past experiences. For example, a child develops a "dog schema" that might initially include attributes like "four legs," "furry," and "barks" (Piaget, 1952).

Piaget identified two fundamental processes involved in schema development:

1. Assimilation: The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas. When children encounter new experiences that fit with their current understanding, they assimilate this information into existing mental structures. (Dreyer, 1984)

2. Accommodation: The process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones when new information cannot be assimilated. For instance, when a child who believes all four-legged animals are dogs encounters a cat, they must accommodate this new information by either modifying their "dog schema" or creating a new "cat schema" (Piaget, 1964). (Dryer, 1984)

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's stage theory represents one of the most influential frameworks in developmental psychology, outlining how children's thinking evolves through qualitatively distinct periods. Piaget proposed that cognitive development progresses through four major stages, each characterized by specific cognitive achievements and limitations (Piaget, 1952; Huitt & Hummel, 2003).

Stage	Sensorimotor Stage	Preoperational Stage	Concrete Stage	Formal Operational Stage
Age Range	Birth to approximately 2 years	2-7 years	7-11 years	11 years and older
What Occurs in this Stage	During the sensorimotor stage, infants construct understanding primarily through sensory experiences and motor actions (Huitt & Hummel, 2003). Piaget subdivided this stage into six substages that reflect increasingly sophisticated adaptations: Reflexive schemes (0-1 month): Newborns rely on innate reflexes (sucking, grasping) as their primary means of interacting with the environment. Primary circular reactions (1-4 months): Infants begin to repeat actions that produce interesting effects, particularly those centered on their own bodies. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months): Actions become more outwardly focused as infants deliberately repeat behaviors that affect objects in their environment. Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months): Infants demonstrate intentionality by coordinating previously learned behaviors to solve simple problems. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months): Children engage in trial-and-error experimentation, varying their actions to observe different outcomes. Mental representation (18-24 months): Children develop the ability to use mental symbols, enabling deferred imitation, symbolic play, and rudimentary understanding of object permanence. A key cognitive achievement during this period is the development of object permanence—the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched (Piaget, 1954).	The preoperational stage marks the emergence of representational thinking, though children's reasoning remains intuitive rather than logical (Huitt & Hummel, 2003). Key characteristics include: Symbolic function: Children use mental symbols to represent objects and experiences, evident in dramatic play, drawing, and language development . Egocentrism: Difficulty in understanding perspectives different from their own, as demonstrated in Piaget's classic "Three Mountains" task. Centration: Tendency to focus on a single perceptual dimension while ignoring others, leading to inability to conserve quantity despite transformations in appearance. Animism: Attribution of life-like qualities to inanimate objects. Transductive reasoning: Drawing connections between unrelated events based on temporal proximity rather than causal relationships.	During the concrete operational stage, children develop logical reasoning about concrete situations and materials, demonstrating several important cognitive advances (Huitt & Hummel, 2003): Conservation: Understanding that physical properties remain constant despite changes in appearance (e.g., liquid volume remains constant regardless of container shape). Classification: Ability to categorize objects according to multiple attributes simultaneously. Seriation: Capacity to arrange objects in sequential order along a quantitative dimension. Reversibility: Recognition that actions can be mentally reversed, enabling children to trace backward from an outcome to its starting point. While concrete operational children can solve problems involving tangible objects and direct experiences, they continue to struggle with abstract or hypothetical reasoning.	The final stage in Piaget's theory marks the emergence of abstract, hypothetical, and deductive reasoning (Huitt & Hummel, 2003). Adolescents with formal operational thinking can: Engage in hypothetical-deductive reasoning, systematically testing hypotheses to isolate variables Consider abstract concepts and possibilities beyond concrete reality Think about thinking itself (metacognition) Develop idealistic views about the world and social issues

Reflection:

• How do Vygotsky's and Piaget’s theories still apply today?
• What are ways that we can use what we know about the ZPD and scaffolding to enhance children's learning?

• How have you seen or noticed infants and toddlers react to new experiences? What do they do and how does it relate to schema theory?

• Have you ever noticed infants and toddlers in the different stages of Piaget’s theory? What did you notice from his theory that they were doing?

• What could you do to encourage infants and toddlers in their cognitive development?

References:

Amineh, R. J., & Asl, H. D. (2015). Review of constructivism and social constructivism. Journal of social sciences, literature and languages, 1(1), 9-16.

Aristotle, A. (2000). On the soul (pp. 415b8-12). Alex Catalogue.

DeRose, K. (2005). What is epistemology? A brief introduction to the topic. Retrieved from https://campuspress.yale.edu/keithderose/what-is-epistemology/

Hruby, G. G., & Roegiers, A. B. (2012). Cognitive constructivism. The encyclopedia of applied linguistics.

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational psychology interactive, 3(2), 1-5.

Locke, J. (1948). An essay concerning human understanding, 1690.

Ramozzi-Chiarottino, Z. (2021). Jean Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology as a Theory of Knowledge Based on Epigenesis. Athens Journal of Humanities & Arts, 8(3), 209–230. https://doi.org/10.30958/ajha.8.3.2

Sweeney, J. M. (2009). Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology and Language. In I’d Rather Be Dead Than Be a Girl. University Press of America, Incorporated.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.

Van der Veer, R. (2007). Lev Vygotsky. Continuum. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472541437